Introdction and Sacred Scriptures -5

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List of Hindu scriptures

The following is a bibliography of Hindu scriptures and texts. Hinduism is based on "the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times."[1] The scriptures were transmitted orally, in verse form to aid memorization, for many centuries before they were written down  While many of these texts are in Sanskrit, several others have been composed in, or translated into other Indian languages

A

  • Agama – important smriti scriptures. Different denominations understand this term in different ways.

B

C

  • Chandas – (छंदः), the study of Vedic meter, is one of the six Vedanga disciplines, or "organs of the vedas.
  • Chandogya Upanishad – is associated with the Samaveda. It figures as number 9 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. It is part of the Chandogya Brahmana, which has ten chapters.
  • Charaka Samhita: An early Ayurvedic text on internal medicine. It is believed to be the oldest of the three ancient treatises of Ayurveda.
  • "'Code of Manu"' – is the most important and earliest metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of Hinduism

D


G

H

I

K

  • Kamba Ramayanam (கம்ப இராமாயணம்): 12th century Tamil version of Ramayana.

M

  • Mahābhārata (महाभारत): One of the two major ancient Sanskrit epics of India, the other being the Ramayana. The Mahabharata is of religious and philosophical importance in India; in particular, the Bhagavad Gita, which is one of its chapters (Bhishmaparva) and a sacred text of Hinduism.
  • Manu Smriti (मनुस्मृति) : The Manusmriti translated "Laws of Manu" is regarded as an important work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society. Manu was the forefather of all humans and author of Manu Smriti. Certain historians believe it to have been written down around 200 C.E. under the reign of Pushymitra Sunga of Sangha clan.

N

The Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Tamil: நாலாயிர திவ்ய பிரபந்தம்) is a collection of 4,000 Tamil verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD,[1] by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The work is the beginning of the canonization of the 12 Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively even today. The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamuni.

P

  • Purāṇa (पुराण): Purana meaning "ancient" or "old" is the name of a genre (or a group of related genres) of Indian written literature (as distinct from oral literature). Its general themes are history, tradition and religion. It is usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.

R

  • Ṝgveda (ऋग्वेद): The Rigveda is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns counted as the holiest of the four religious texts of Hindus, known as the Vedas.
  • Rudrayamala Tantra

S

  • Sahasranama – a book containing a list of names of deities
  • Śruti (श्रुति): A canon of Hindu scriptures. Shruti is believed to have no author; rather a divine recording of the "cosmic sounds of truth", heard by rishis.
  • Sūtra (सूत्र): Sūtra refers to an aphorism or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a book or text. 'Sutras' form a school of Vedic study, related to and somewhat later than the Upanishads.
  • Sushruta Samhita: An ancient Sanskrit text, attributed to one Sushruta, foundational to Ayurvedic medicine (Indian traditional medicine), with innovative chapters on surgery.
  • Swara yoga: An ancient science of pranic body rhythms. It explores how prana can be controlled through the breath.

T

  • Tantras (तंत्र): The esoteric Hindu traditions of rituals and yoga. Tantra can be summarised as a family of voluntary rituals modeled on those of the Vedas, together with their attendant texts and lineages.

U

V

  • Veda (वेद): Collectively refers to a corpus of ancient Indian religious literature that are considered by adherents of Hinduism to be Śruti or revealed knowledge.
  • Vijnana Bhairava Tantra – a teaching where Bhairavi (Parvati) asks Bhairava (Lord Shiva) to reveal the essence of the way one has to tread on the path to the realization of the highest reality – the state of Bhairava.

Y


Āgama (Hinduism)

Agama (Sanskrit आगम) is derived from the verb root गम (gam) meaning "to go" and the preposition आ (aa) meaning "toward" and refers to scriptures "that which has come down".[1] It also means "a traditional doctrine, or system which commands faith".[2]
The Agamas are a collection of Sanskrit,[1] Tamil and Grantha[3] scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of idols, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.[1] The Agamic religions are also called Tantrism, although the term 'tantra' is sometimes used specifically to refer to Shakta Agamas. The origin and chronology of Agamic religions remain contentious. The tantras are considered innumerable with various sects.[4] Some popular agama-based religions are those of Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakta, Ganapatya, Kaumara, Soura, Bhairava, and Yaksha-bhutadi-sadhana. The Shaiva Agamas revere the Ultimate Reality as Lord Shiva (Shaivism). The Vaishnava-Agamas adore the Ultimate Reality as Vishnu (Vaishnavism). The Shakta-Agamas (Tantras) venerate the Ultimate Reality as Shakti (Shaktism). Each set of texts expands on the central theological and philosophical teachings of that sect. There exist 28 Saiva Agamas, 77 Shakta Agamas and 215 Vaishnava Agamas, and their upa-agamas.[3]
The Agamas are non-vedic in origin [5] and have been dated either as post-vedic texts [6] or as pre-vedic compositions.[7] In the Malay language the word Agama literally means 'religion'. Agama traditions have been the sources of Yoga and Self Realization concepts in the Indian subcontinent, including Kundalini Yoga [8] and encompass traditions of asceticism. Tantrism includes within its fold Buddhist and Jaina tantras suggesting that Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist tantrism developed separately after arising from common sources of Tantric elements.[9] Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed before the 6th century BCE, and it was as a Shramana that Gautama Buddha left his father's palace and practiced austerities.[10] The Agamic tradition, in general, has been dated to the pre-Mauryan period as references to the tradition are found in later vedic literature of Atharvaveda.

Significance

Agamas deal with the philosophy and spiritual knowledge behind the worship of the deity, the yoga and mental discipline required for this worship, and the specifics of worship offered to the deity. The ritualistic pattern of worship in the Agamic religions differ from the Vedic form. While the Vedic form of yajna require no idols and shrines, the Agamic religions are based on idols with puja as means of worship.[12] The Agamic dieties are pinned to a specific spot and assume the nature of a territorial deity.
Each Agama consists of four parts:[13][12]
  • Kriya pada - consists of rules for construction of temples; for sculpting, carving, and consecration of idols of deities for worship in temples; for different forms of initiations or diksha.
  • Charya pada - lays down rules for daily worship (puja), observances of religious rites, rituals, festivals and prayaschittas.
  • Yoga pada - concentrates on yoga and the mental discipline.
  • Jnana pada - consists of philosophical and spiritual knowledge, knowledge of reality and liberation.
The Agamas state three essential requirements for a place of pilgrimage - Sthala, Tīrtha and Murthy. Sthala refers to the temple, Tīrtha, to the temple tank and Murthy to the deity(ies) worshipped. A temple may also be associated with a tree, called the Sthala Vriksham. For instance, the Kadamba tree at the Madurai Meenakshi Sundareswarar temple is the Sthala Vriksham. A lone banyan tree that adorns the spacious courtyard of the Ratnasabha at Tiruvalankadu is the Sthala Vriksham. The entire area is believed to have been a forest of banyan trees once.
Elaborate rules are laid out in the Agamas for Silpa (the art of sculpture) describing the quality requirements of the places where temples are to be built, the kind of images to be installed, the materials from which they are to be made, their dimensions, proportions, air circulation, lighting in the temple complex etc. The Manasara and Silpasara are some of the works dealing with these rules. The rituals followed in worship services each day at the temple also follow rules laid out in the Agamas.

Saiva Agamas

The Shaiva Agama perceives its texts were generated from Shiva as
“
Shivena devya datham
Devya dathamthu Nandhine
Nandhina Brahmana Datham
Brahmana Rishi Dhathakam
Rishinaam Maanusha Datham
Athyethe agamodhbavam
”
meaning,
“
From Shiva to Devi
From Devi to Nandhi
From Nandhi to Brahma
From Brahma to Rishi
From Rishi to human beings
”
The Saiva Agamas are found in four main schools - Kapala, Kalamukha, Pashupata and Saiva -- and number 28 in total as follows:
  • Kamikam
  • Yogajam
  • Chintyam
  • Karanam
  • Ajitham
  • Deeptham
  • Sukskmam
  • Sahasram
  • Ashuman
  • Suprabedham
  • Vijayam
  • Nishwasam
  • Swayambhuvam
  • Analam
  • Veeram
  • Rouravam
  • Makutam
  • Vimalam
  • Chandragnanam
  • Bimbam
  • Prodgeetham
  • Lalitham
  • Sidham
  • Santhanam
  • Sarvoktham
  • Parameshwaram
  • Kiranam
  • Vathulam

Saiva Siddhanta and Kashmiri Shaivism

The Saiva Agamas led to the Saiva Siddhanta philosophy in Tamil-speaking regions of South-India and gave rise to Kashmir Saivism in the North-Indian region of Kashmir.
Kashmiri Saivism is also called the Trika Shastra.[14] It centers mainly on the Trika system of mAlinI, siddha and nAmaka Agamas and venerates the triad Shiva, Shakti, Nara (the bound soul) and the union of Shiva with Shakti.[15] The trika philosophy derives its name from the three shaktis, namely, parA, aparA and parApara; and provides three modes of knowledge of reality, that is, non-dual (abheda), non-dual-cum-dual (bhedabheda) and dual (bheda). The literature of Kashmiri Shaivism is divided under three categories -- Agama shastra, Spanda shastra and Pratyabhijna shastra.[15] Although the Trika Shastra in the form of Agama Shastra is said to have existed eternally, the founder of the system is considered Vasugupta (850 AD) to whom the Shiva Sutras were revealed.[14][15] Kallata in Spanda-vritti and Kshemaraja in his commentary Vimarshini state Shiva revealed the secret doctrines to Vasugupta while Bhaskara in his Varttika says a Siddha revealed the doctrines to Vasugupta in a dream.[14]

Shakta Agamas

The Shakta Agamas or Shakta tantras are 64 in number and grouped into Dakshina marga (right-hand) and Vama marga (left-hand).

Vaishnava Agamas

The Vaishnava Agamas are found into two main schools -- Pancharatra and Vaikhanasas. While Vaikhanasa Agamas were transmitted from Vikhanasa Rishi to his disciples Brighu, Marichi, Atri and Kashyapa, the Pancharatra Agamas are considered to be revealed and handed down in three ways --
  • divya, directly revealed by Lord Narayana,
  • Munibhaashita, handed down to sages such as Bharadvajasamhita, Parameshvarasamhita, etc,
  • Aaptamanujaprokta, those written by men whose word is trustworthy.[1]

Vaikhanasa Agama

See main article Vaikhanasa
Maharishi Vikhanasa is considered to have guided in the compilation of a set of Agamas named vaikhānasa Agama. Sage Vikhanasa is conceptualized as a mind-born creation, i.e., Maanaseeka Utbhavar of Lord Narayana.[16] Originally Vikhanasa passed on the knowledge to nine disciples in the first manvantara -- Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa, Vasishta, Pulaha, Pulasthya, Krathu and Angiras. However, only those of Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa and Atri are extant today. The four rishis are said to have received the cult and knowledge of Vishnu from the first Vikahansa, i.e., the older Brahma in the Svayambhuva Manvanthara. Thus, the four sages Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa, are considered the propagators of vaikhānasa śāstra. A composition of Sage Vikhanasa's disciple Marichi, namely, Ananda-Samhita states Vikhanasa prepared the Vaikhanasa Sutra according to a branch of Yajurveda and was Brahma himself.[16]
The extant texts of vaikhānasa Agama number 28 in total and are known from the texts, vimānārcakakalpa and ānanda saṃhitā, both composed by marīci which enumerate them. They are:[17][18]
The 13 Adhikaras authored by Bhrigu
  • khilatantra
  • purātantra
  • vāsādhikāra
  • citrādhikāra
  • mānādhikāra
  • kriyādhikāra
  • arcanādhikāra
  • yajnādhikāra
  • varṇādhikāra
  • prakīrṇādhikāra
  • pratigṛhyādhikāra
  • niruktādhikāra
  • khilādhikāra
However, ānanda saṃhitā attributes ten works to Bhrigu, namely, khila, khilādhikāra, purādhikāra, vāsādhikāraṇa, arcanādhikaraṇa, mānādhikaraṇa, kriyādhikāra, niruktādhikāra, prakīrṇādhikāra, yajnādhikāra.
The 8 Samhitas authored by Mareechi
  • jaya saṃhitā
  • ānanda saṃhitā
  • saṃjnāna saṃhitā
  • vīra saṃhitā
  • vijaya saṃhitā
  • vijita saṃhitā
  • vimala saṃhitā
  • jnāna saṃhitā
However, ānanda saṃhitā attributes the following works to Marichi -- jaya saṃhitā, ānanda saṃhitā, saṃjnāna saṃhitā, vīra saṃhitā, vijaya saṃhitā, vijita saṃhitā, vimala saṃhitā, kalpa saṃhitā.
The 3 Kandas authored by Kashyapa
  • satyakāṇḍa
  • tarkakāṇḍa
  • jnānakāṇḍa.
However, ānanda saṃhitā attributes the satyakāṇḍa, karmakāṇḍa and jnānakāṇḍa to Kashyapa.
The 4 tantras authored by Atri
  • pūrvatantra
  • ātreyatantra
  • viṣṇutantra
  • uttaratantra.
However, ānanda saṃhitā attributes the pūrvatantra, viṣṇutantra, uttaratantra and mahātantra to Atri.

Pancharatra Agama

See main article: Pañcaratra
Like the Vaikhanasa Agama, the Pancharatra Agama is centered around the worship of Lord Vishnu. While the Vaikhansa deals primarily with Vaidhi Bhakti, the Pancaratra Agama teaches both vaidhi and rAgAnugA bhakti.[19]

Soura Agamas

The Soura or Saura Agamas comprise one of the six popular agama-based religions of Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakta, Ganapatya, Kaumara and Soura. The Saura Tantras are dedicated to the sun (Surya) and Soura Agamas are in use in temples of Sun worship. One of the earliest agamic texts of Jains, the Jaina Souraseni, is said to have derived from the Soura tantric element.

Ganapatya Agamas

The Paramanada Tantra mentions the number of sectarian tantras as 6000 for Vaishnava, 10000 for Shaiva, 100000 for Shakta, 1000 for Ganapatya, 2000 for Saura, 7000 for Bhairava, and 2000 for Yaksha-bhutadi-sadhana.

Aranyaka

The Aranyakas (Sanskrit āraṇyaka आरण्यक) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas; they were composed in late Vedic Sanskrit typical of the Brahmanas and early Upanishads; indeed, they frequently form part of either the Brahmanas or the Upanishads.
"Aranyaka" (āraṇyaka) means "belonging to the wilderness" (araṇya), that is, as Taittiriya Ar. 2 says, "from where one cannot see the roofs of the settlement". The term is translated as "Forest Books" or "Wilderness Books" in English.
They contain Brahmana-style discussion of ritual regarded as especially dangerous, such as the Mahavrata and Pravargya,[1] and therefore had to be learned in the wilderness. They have also served as receptacles of later additions to the Vedic corpus. They appear to be closer in content to the Brahmanas than the esoteric Upanishads

The Wilderness Books

The Aranyakas discuss sacrifices, in the style of the Brahmanas, and thus are primarily concerned with the proper performance of ritual (orthopraxy). The Aranyakas were restricted to a particular class of rituals that nevertheless were frequently included in the Vedic curriculum.
The Aranyakas are associated with, and named for, individual Vedic shakhas.
  • Rigveda
    • Aitareya Aranyaka belongs to the Aitareya Shakha of Rigveda
    • Kaushitaki Aranyaka belongs to the Kaushitaki and Shankhayana Shakhas of Rigveda
  • Yajurveda
    • Taittiriya Aranyaka belongs to the Taittiriya Shakha of the Black Yajurveda
    • Maitrayaniya Aranyaka belongs to the Maitrayaniya Shakha of the Black Yajurveda
    • Katha Aranyaka belongs to the (Caraka)Katha Shakha of the Black Yajurveda[2]
    • Brihad Aranyaka in the Madhyandina and the Kanva versions of the White Yajurveda. The Madhyandina version has 9 sections, of which the last 6 are the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
  • Samaveda
    • Talavakara Aranyaka or Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana belongs to the Talavakara or Jaiminiya Shakha of the Samaveda
    • Aranyaka Samhita The Purvarchika of the Samaveda Samhitas have a section called the 'Aranyaka Samhita' on which the Aranyagana Samans are sung.
The Atharvaveda has no surviving Aranyaka, though the Gopatha Brahmana is regarded as its Aranyaka, a remnant of a larger, lost Atharva (Paippalada) Brahmana.

Aitareya Aranyaka

There are five chapters each of which is even considered as a full Aranyaka. The first one deals with the regimen known as ‘Mahaa-vrata’. The explanations are both ritualistic as well as speculative. The second one has six chapters of which the first three are about ‘Praana-vidyaa’ – meaning, Prana, the Vital Air that constitutes the life-breath of a living body is also the life-breath of all mantras, all vedas and all vedic declarations (cf. 2.2.2 of Aitareya Aranyaka). It is in this portion of the Aranyaka that one finds specific statements about how one who follows the vedic injunctions and performs the sacrifices goes to become the God of Fire, or the Sun or Air and how one who transgresses the Vedic prescriptions is born into lower levels of being, namely, as birds and reptiles.
The 4th, 5th and 6th chapters of this second Aranyaka constitute what is known as Aitareya Upanishad.
The third Aranyaka in this chain of Aranyakas is also known as ‘Samhitopanishad’. This elaborates on the various ways – like pada-paatha, krama-paatha, etc. – of reciting the Vedas and the nuances of the ‘svaras’.
The fourth and the fifth Aranyaka are technical and dwell respectively on the mantras known as ‘MahaanaamnI’ and the yajna known as ‘Madhyandina’.

Taittiriya Aranyaka

There are ten chapters, of which, one to six form the Aranyaka proper. The first two chapters are part of the aṣṭau kāṭhakāni (the "8 Kathaka sections"),[3] which were not native to the tradition of the Taittiriya shakha. They were adopted from the Kāṭhaka shakha, and mostly deal with varieties of the Agnicayana ritual.[4]
Chapter 1, is a very late Vedic chapter, which even has some Puranic names; it is usually called the Āruṇa praśna for the particular style of fire-brick piling dealt with in the text. It is also referred to as the "Surya namaskara chapter" by South Indian Brahmins who have created a ritual of reciting it with surya namaskara exercises after each of its 132 anuvakas.[citation needed][5] Parts of the Kaṭha version of this section has been published by L. v. Schroeder in 1898.[6]
Chapter 2, discusses the five Mahā-yajñas that every Brahmin has to do daily, most importantly the daily recitation of the Veda (svādhyāya). Further, the sacred thread, the yajñopavīta, sāndhyā worship, that of the ancestors (pitṛ), the brahma-yajña, and the cleansing homa-sacrifice ('kūṣmāṇḍa-homa') are all treated in detail. – In this chapter the word 'shramana' is used (2-7-1) in the meaning of an ascetic (tapasvin); this word was later used also for the Buddhist and Jain ascetics. – Discussed and translated by Ch. Malamoud (in French, 1977); the Kaṭha version of this section has been published by L. v. Schroeder in 1898.
Chapter 3, treats technicalities of several other homas and yajnas.
Chapter 4, provides the mantras used in the pravargya Shrauta ritual that is considered to be dangerous as it involves heating a specially prepared clay vessel full of milk until it is glowing red.
Chapter 5, treats the Pravargya-yajña in prose discussion (brāhmaṇa style).
Chapter 6, records the ‘pitṛmedha’ mantras, recited during the rituals for the disposal of the dead body.
Chapters 7, 8 and 9, are the three vallis of the well-known Taittiriya Upanishad.
Chapter 10, is also known as "Mahanarayana Upanishad". It has several important mantras culled from the three Samhitas.[citation needed] TA 10.41–44 is known as the "Me–dha sukta".

Shankhayana Aranyaka

There are fifteen chapters:
Chapters 1–2 deal with the Mahavrata.
Chapters 3–6 constitute the Kaushitaki Upanishad.
Chapters 7–8 are known as a Samhitopanishad.
Chapter 9 presents the greatness of Prana.
Chapter 10 deals with the esoteric implications of the Agnihotra ritual. All divine personalities are inherent in the Purusha, just as Agni in speech, Vayu in Prana, the Sun in the eyes, the Moon in the mind, the directions in the ears and water in the potency. The one who knows this, says the Aranyaka, and in the strength of that conviction goes about eating, walking, taking and giving, satisfies all the gods and what he offers in the fire reaches those gods in heaven. (cf.10-1).
Chapter 11 prescribes several antidotes in the form of rituals for warding off death and sickness. It also details the effects of dreams.
Chapter 12 elaborates the fruits of prayer.
Chapter 13 treats more philosophical matters and says one must first attitudinally discard one’s bodily attachment and then carry on the ‘shravana’, manana and nidhidhyasana and practise all the disciplines of penance, faith, self-control etc.
Chapter 14 gives just two mantras. One extols the “I am Brahman” mantra and says it is the apex of all Vedic mantras. The second mantra declares that one who does not get the meaning of mantras but only recites vedic chants is like an animal which does not know the value of the weight it carries.
Chapter 15 gives a long genealogy of spiritual teachers from Brahma down to Guna-Sankhayana.

Brihad-Aranyaka

The Aranyaka of the White Yajurvda is part of its Brahmana: Satapatha Br. 14,1–3 in the Madhyandina version. It exclusively deals with the Parvargya ritual, and is followed by the Brihad-Aranyaka Upanishad (Satapatha Br. 14.4–9).

Rahasya Brahmanas

There is also a certain continuity of the Aranyakas from the Brahmanas in the sense that the Aranyakas go into the meanings of the 'secret' rituals not detailed in the Brahmanas. Later tradition sees this as a leap into subtlety that provides the reason for Durgacharya in his commentary on the Nirukta to say that the Aranyakas are ‘Rahasya Brahmana’, that is, the Brahmana of secrets


Atharvaveda

The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: अथर्ववेदः, atharvaveda, a tatpurusha compound of Atharvan, an ancient Rishi, and veda, meaning "knowledge") is a sacred text of Hinduism and one of the four Vedas, often called the "fourth Veda". According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is Ātharvāṅgirasa. In the Late Vedic Gopatha Brahmana, it is attributed to the Bhrigu and Angirasa. Additionally, tradition ascribes parts to other rishis, such as Kauśika, Vasiṣṭha and Kaśyapa. There are two surviving recensions (śākhās), known as Śaunakīya (AVS) and Paippalāda (AVP)

The Atharvaveda, while undoubtedly belonging to the core Vedic corpus, in some ways represents an independent parallel tradition to that of the Rigveda and Yajurveda. It incorporates much of the early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures[citation needed].
The Atharvaveda is less predominant than other Vedas, as it is little used in solemn (Shrauta) ritual. The largely silent Brahmin priest observes the procedures of the ritual and "heals" it with two mantras and pouring of ghee when a mistake occurs. An early text[citation needed], its status has been ambiguous due to its magical character.

Recensions

The Caraṇavyuha (attributed to Shaunaka) lists nine shakhas, or schools, of the Atharvaveda:[1]
  1. paippalāda, regions south of the Narmada River
  2. stauda
  3. mauda
  4. śaunakīya, regions north of the Narmada River
  5. jājala
  6. jalada
  7. kuntap
  8. brahmavada
  9. devadarśa
  10. cāraṇavaidyā
Of these, only the Śaunakīya (AVS), present in Gujarat, and the Paippalāda (AVP) recension in coastal Orissa have survived. Both have some later additions, but the core Paippalāda text is considered earlier than most of the Śaunakīya. Often in corresponding hymns, the two recensions have different verse orders, or each has additional verses not in the other.
Saṃhitāvidhi, Śāntikalpa and Nakṣatrakalpa are some of the five kalpa texts adduced to the Śaunakīya tradition and not separate schools of their own.
Two main post-Samhita texts associated with the AV are the Vaitāna Sūtra and the Kauśika Sūtra. The Vaitanasutra deals with the participation of the Atharvaveda priest (brahmán) in the Shrauta ritual, while the Kauśikasūtra contains many applications of Atharvaveda mantras in healing and magic. This serves the same purpose as the vidhāna of the Rigveda and is of great value in studying the application of the AV text in Vedic times. Several Upanishads also are associated with the AV, but appear to be relatively late additions to the tradition. The most important of these are the muṇḍaka and the praśna Upanishads. The former contains an important reference to Śaunaka, the founder of the Shaunakiya shakha, while the latter is associated with the Paippalāda shakha.

Dating

It is conjectured that the core text of the Atharvaveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE - roughly contemporary with the Yajurveda mantras, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda.
The Atharvaveda is also the first Indic text to mention iron (as krsna ayas, literally "black metal"), so that scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, corresponding to the 12th to 10th centuries BC, or the early Kuru kingdom.
Tradition suggests that Paippalāda, one of the early collators, and Vaidharbhī, one of the late contributors associated with the Atharvanic text, lived during the reign of prince Hiranyanabha of the Ikshvāku dynasty.

Divisions and issues of note

  • The Shaunakiya text is clearly divided into four parts: Kāṇḍas 1-7 deal with healing and general black and white magic that is to be applied in all situations of life, from the first tooth of a baby to regaining kingship. Kandas 8-12 constitute early speculation on the nature of the universe and of humans as well as on ritual and are thus predecessors of the Upanishads. They continue the speculative tradition of some Rigvedic poets. Kandas 13-18 deal with issues of a householder's life, such as marriage, death and female rivalry, as well as with the ambiguous Vratyas on the fringes of society and with the Rohita sun as an embodiment of royal power. Kanda 19 is an addition, and Kanda 20 is a very late addition containing Rigvedic hymns for the use of the Atharvanic Brahmanacchamsin priest as well as for the enigmatic Kuntapa ritual of the Kuru kingdom of Parikshit. The Paippalada text has a similar arrangement into four parts (Kandas 1-15, 16-17, 18, 19-20) with roughly the same contents.
  • The Paippalada text begins with shan no devir abhistaye, the most common brahmayajna mantra. The Shaunakiya text begins with ye trishapt, which is in the second sukta in the Paippalada Samhita.[1]
  • Jain and Buddhist texts are considerably more hostile to the Atharvaveda (they call it Aggvāna or Ahavāna Veda) than they are to the other Hindu texts.[citation needed]
  • The AV is the first Indic[disambiguation needed] text dealing with medicine. It identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents such as the yatudhāna, the kimīdin, the krimi or kṛmi and the durṇāma. The Atharvans seek to kill them with a variety of incantations or plant-based drugs in order to counter the disease (see XIX.34.9). This approach to disease is quite different compared to the trihumoral theory of Ayurveda. Remnants of the original Atharvanic thought did persist, as can be seen in Suśruta's medical treatise and in (Garuḍa Purāṇa, karma kāṃḍa - chapter: 164). Here, following the Atharvan theory, the Purāṇic text suggests germs as a cause for leprosy. In the same chapter, Suśruta also expands on the role of helminths in disease. These two can be directly traced back to the Atharvaveda saṃhitā. The hymn AV I.23-24 describes the disease leprosy and recommends the rajani auṣadhi for its treatment. From the description of the auṣadhi as a black, branching entity with dusky patches, it is very likely that it is a lichen with antibiotic properties. Thus the AV may be one of the earliest texts to record uses of the antibiotic agents.
  • The Atharvaveda also informs about warfare. A variety of devices, such as an arrow with a duct for poison (apāskambha) and castor bean poison, poisoned net and hook traps, use of disease-spreading insects and smoke screens[citation needed] find a place in the Atharvaveda saṃhita (e.g., hymns IX.9 and IX.10, the trisaṃdi and nyārbudi hymns). These references to military practices and associated Kṣatriya rites were what gave the Atharvaveda its reputation. In the Mahabharata, there is a frequent comparison between weapons and the mantras of the heroes.
  • Several regular and special rituals of the Aryans ārya are a major concern of the Atharvaveda, just as in the three other Vedas. The major rituals covered by the AV are marriage in kāṃḍa - XIV and the funeral in kāṃḍa - XVIII. There are also hymns that are specific to rituals of the bhṛgu-aṅgirasas, vrātyas and kṣatriyas. One peculiar rite is the Viṣāsahi Vrata, performed with the mantras of the XVII kāṃḍa in a spell against female rivals. The Vrātya rituals were performed by individuals who took on a semi-nomadic way of living and were generally roaming about in neighboring tribal territories to gain wealth in cattle by putting pressure on householders grihastha. Finally, there are some rituals aimed at the destruction of the enemies (Abhicārika hymns and rites), particularly found in chapters 1-7. While these support traditional negative views on the AV, in content, they are mirrored by several other hymns from the Rig as well as the Yajuṣes. Moreover, Abhicārika rites were an integral part of Vedic culture, as is amply attested in the brāhmaṇa literature. Thus, the Atharvaveda is fully within the classic Vedic fold, though it was more specific to certain Brahmán clans of priests. The development of the Abhichārika rites to their more "modern" form is clearly seen in the vidhāna literature. The author of the ṛgvidhāna provides passing reference to the development of similar rites in the AV tradition (the references to the Āṅgirasa Krityās). These rites reached their culmination in the Kauśika Sutra and in some of the Pariśiṣṭas (appendices) of the Atharvan literature.
  • Philosophical excursions are found in books 8-12. One of the most spectacular expressions of philosophical thought is seen in the hymn XII.I, the Hymn to goddess Earth or the Pṛthivī Sūkta used in the Āgrayana rite. The foundations of Vaiṣeśika Darśana is expressed in the mantra XII.1.26 in which the atoms (Pāṃsu) are described forming the stone, the stones agglutinating to form the rocks and the rocks held together to form the earth. Early pantheistic thought is seen in the hymn X.7 that describes the common thread running through all manifest and non-manifest existence as the skaṃbha. This skaṃbha is described as what poured out of the Hiraṇyagarbha that was the precursor of the complex world in a very simple form (X.7.28). (Hiraṇyagarba = "The golden womb from which the Universe was formed.") This Skambha is Indra, and Indra is the Skambha which describes all existence. The hymn also describes a pantheistic nature of the Vedic gods (X.7.38): skaṃbha is the heat (tapaḥ) that spreads through the universe (Bhuvana) as waves of water; the units of this spreading entity are the gods even as branches of one tree. This theme is repeatedly presented in various interpretations in later Hindu philosophies.

Editions

The Shaunakiya text was edited by Rudolf Roth and William Dwight Whitney (Berlin, 1856), Shankar Pandurang Pandit in the 1890s (Bombay) and by Vishva Bandhu (Hoshiarpur, 1960–62). Translations into English were made by Ralph Griffith (2 vols., Benares 1897), D. Whitney (revised by Lanman, 2 vols, Cambridge, Mass. 1905), and M. Bloomfield (SBE Vol XLII); also see Bloomfield, "The Atharvaveda" in "Grundriss der Indoarischen Philologie", II (Strasburg, 1899).
The bulk of the Paippalāda text was edited by Leroy Carr Barret from 1905 to 1940 (book 6 by F. Edgerton, 1915) from a single Kashmirian Śāradā manuscript (now in Tübingen). This edition is outdated, since various other manuscripts were subsequently discovered in Orissa. Some manuscripts are in the Orissa State Museum, but many manuscripts are in private possession and are kept hidden by their owners.
In 1959 Durgamohan Bhattacharyya Professor at Sanskrit College, Calcutta could collect many manuscripts of the Paippalāda-Saṃhitā and its ancillary literature like the Āṅgirasakalpa after painstaking search over years in Orissa and South-West Bengal. Durgamohan Bhattacharyya’s discovery of a living tradition of the Paippalāda-Saṃhitā, unknown till then, was hailed in the Indological world as epoch making. Ludwig Alsdorf went so far as to say that it was the greatest event in Indology. Bhattacharyya died in 1965 living his edition of the text incomplete. This task was completed by Dipak Bhattacharya whose critical edition of the first 18 kāṇḍas published by the Asiatic Society, Calcutta came out in three volumes in 1997, 2008 and 2011.
Timeline of editions since the discovery of the Orissa tradition:
1964–1970 edition of books 1-4 by Durgamohan Bhattacharyya, Sanskrit College, Calcutta (Orissa text only)
1997: edition of books 1-15 by Dipak Bhattacharya
1999: edition and translation into German of book 2 by Thomas Zehnder
2000: edition and translation into English of books 13 and 14 by Carlos A. Lopez
2002: edition and translation into English of book 5 by Alexander Lubotsky
2008: edition of book 16 by Dipak Bhattacharya
2009: edition and translation into English of books 6 and 7 by Arlo Griffiths

Recitation style of the Atharvaveda

The current recitation style of this Veda mostly resembles the Rigvedic one.
The Shaunaka Shakha of the Atharvaveda is recited in western Saurastra, at Benares, Gokarna and, after a recent introduction from Benares, also in South India (Tirupati, Chidambaram, etc.). The Gokarna version follows the northern style, which resembles the way the Maharashtrians recite the Rigveda Samhita. In Varanasi, which derives its style from Gujarat, the way of recitation is little different. Similarly in South India, the Shaunaka Shaka is recited using the Rig Veda as a base, with minute variations in Kampa Svara.
The Paippalada Shakha of the Atharvaveda is recited in Orissa in samhita-patha, however not with typical Vedic svara [3],[4][5], and in south Jharkhand districts by some migrants of Utkala Brahmins,[6] while its Kashmir branch has been extinct for some centuries

Akilathirattu Ammanai

Akilathirattu Ammanai (Tamil: அகிலத்திரட்டு அம்மானை) (akilam (world) + thirattu (collection) + ammanai (ballad)), also called Thiru Edu (venerable book), is the main religious text of the Tamil belief system Ayyavazhi. The title is often abbreviated to Akilam or Akilathirattu.
Akilam including more than 15000 verses, is the largest Ammanai literature in Tamil[1] and one among the largest works in Tamil which are contributed by a single author

History

According to the book, Akilam, Hari Gopalan Citar wrote this book on the twenty-seventh day of the Tamil month of Karthikai (November/December) in the year 1841 CE.[2] The author claims that God woke him up during his sleep and commissioned him to take dictation of what he said. Akilathirattu was recorded on palm leaves until 1939, when it was given printed form.[3]
According to the author, the book is the story of God coming in this age, the Kali Yukam or Iron Age, to rule the world by transforming it into the Dharma Yukam. This story of faith has woven together the historical facts about Ayya Vaikundar and his activities with reinterpretations of episodes from the Hindu Puranas (mythologies) and Itihasas (epics).[4] It is presented as if Vishnu is narrating the whole story to his consort Lakshmi.
Though the Citar Hari Gopalan wrote the book Akilam, he claimed that he did not know any thing about the contents of the book. He woke up in the morning as usual and he didn't know what he had written the day before. Another legend says that he began it that night and continued through the following days. Others say that it was written beginning on Friday, 26th Karthikai (Tamil Calendar) 1016 M.E, and completed on seventeenth day on the second Sunday of Margazhi (Tamil Calendar) 1016 M.E.
When Ayya Vaikundar died, the tied-up palm leaf manuscript, which was until then not opened, was unfolded. It contained the regulations of the Ayyavazhi sect. As per the instructions found there in Akilam, Ayyavazhi was preached by the Citars far and wide.

Style

Akilam is in two parts; the first is an account of the ages preceding that of the present age, the Kali Yukam, and the second is an account of the activities of Ayya Vaikundar leading up to his attaining Vaikundam.
Akilathirattu is written as a poem in the Tamil language. The narration alternates between two sub-genres called viruttam and natai. Both sub-genres employ many poetic devices like alliteration and hyperbatons.[5] It contains more than 15000 verse making up seventeen section. In a typical Ammanai style, Akilam maintains more than one context for its verses throughout the text. While the floating ideas of the lines could be comparatively easily communicated, the underlying theme couldn't be understood unless oneself is understood and well aware about the basics of Hindu pantheon of gods, Hindu scriptures, Dharmic concepts and philosophy etc.

Versions

The texts written by Hari Gopalan Citar are seen as damaged and it is hard to read the contents. It is still preserved as a relic by his descendents. There are three direct versions which were copied from this first version. They are,
Of these, the Panchalankuricchi Version is believed to be written down by Hari Gopalan Citar by copying from the main version and the other two versions were copied later. Apart from these the Nariyan vilai Version, Varampetran-pantaram Version, Saravanantheri Version are the other early palm-leaf versions of Akilam.
Other release versions include the Palaramachandran version, the VTV published twice, the Kalai Ilakkiya-peravai Version and the Vivekanandan Version. But of these, The Ayya Vaikundar Thirukkudumbam version is often criticised for the removal and adding of additional Verse (poetry)s from various versions. It was argued that such additions and removals are made in over 300 pages. Though Thirukkudumbam claim that these additional lines were added from the early palm-leaf versions (Panchalankuricchi Version and Kottangadu Version) which are believed to be missing, to Akilam, this version is not accepted widely.
All the release versions except Palaramachandran version schedules the whole contents to seventeen sections as per the Thiru Eadu-vasippu partition. The Sentrathisai Ventraperumal version which was released in 1965 includes more than 2000 verse which were not found in other versions. The Palaramachandran version is the widely accepted and the largest circulated version.

Contents

The book focuses on the devotion to Vaikundar, considered to be an aspect of the God Vishnu. It is a poetic narrative in Tamil intended to be an excellent compilation of the various aspects of Indian mythology and beliefs about God.
The first 8 chapters of the book narrates the events starting from the creation of the Universe to the time exactly before the incarnation of Vaikundar. The ninth chapter describes in detail the events taking place in the divine plan during the incarnation of Vaikundar. The last 8 chapters focus of the legendary, empirical, historical and mythical aspects pertaining to the life of Vaikundar.

Evolution and Yugas

The book starts with the explanation given by Vishnu to His consort Lakshmi about the evolution of Universe and of human beings. It is said that there is a total of 8 aeons or yugas and we are currently in the seventh yuga called as Kali Yuga, the age of deterioration. It is believed that for each yuga there is a demon that will be destroyed by Vishnu. In the first yuga, Kroni was born. This Kroni is cognate with the concept of Satan in Abrahamic religions. Vishnu fragmented him into six pieces and each fragments will incarnate as demon in each Yuga. The first four yugas are said to be the Neetiya Yuga, Chatura Yuga, Nedu Yuga and Kretha Yuga. These four yugas do not have parallels in the mainstream Hindu mythology.
The fifth yuga is said to be the Treta Yuga in which the Lord Rama incarnated as human. The sixth yuga is the Dvapara Yuga, and there is a short but striking description of the life of Krishna and the Bharatha war. Additionally there is said to be another event called the birth of Santror or noble people at the closure of Dvapara Yuga.

Kali Yuga

Kali Yuga, the seventh Yuga begins when the evil spirit called Kali (not to be confused with Kaali, the mother goddess) was born. Kali is believed to be cognate with the modern human beings. Then was born the Neesan, the demon for the Kali Yuga. It is said that this demon became the king of earth in various places and tortured the lives of the Santror. Because of this Lord Vishnu got angry and advised Neesan to stop torturing the Santror. But he won't agree to Vishnu and would prefer to die rather than giving up. In order to stop the rule of Neesan and to bring an end to Kali yuga, Vishnu made a plan to make Vaikundar incarnate as human.

The Incarnation

Vaikundar is believed to be the Son of Vishnu and Lakshmi. He was beget inside the sea, and sent as human into the land. From the point of incarnation of Vaikundar, it is said that He was made the supreme of all godhead, and will destroy Neesan and also the evil Kali Yuga. It is also said that he will take all righteous people with him into the Vaikundam in the eighth yuga called as Dharma Yukam. Also, nothing is said about the period which follows Dharma yuga, which means that timeline is linear, and not circular as believed inside mainstream Hinduism.

Sections

The Akilam is divided into seventeen parts:

Teachings

Akilam teaches a set of values that are theological, sociological and philosophical. Of these the ideas promoted by Akilam spans throughout the various teachings found in Hindu scriptures and present Hinduism in the first half and at the second, a set of revolutionary teachings, in all aspects were focussed. The theological teachings revolves around the supremacy of Vaikundar while the sociological teachings mainly focus on breaking up the inequalities prevalent in the society. The Philosophical ideas mainly focus the 'Ultimate oneness' of nature and all living beings.

Theosophy

All the major Hindu deities namely Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Parvati, Skanda, and Ganesha are mentioned direcy in the mythology throughout the book. Also there is an indirect mention about Bible, Allah and Quran inside the book. A reference found in Akilam about Jesus is more direct than indirect. Also the book seems to stress that all texts and scriptures are true and have a share about the truth of the Divine. It is notable that Akilam is heavily against creating religions as it not mention the term 'religion' at least once anywhere in the text and do refers only God-heads, concepts and scriptures. The theosophical thoughts found in the book serve as an excellent link between the Dharmic and Abrahamic religious concepts. Despite for the term Ekam, a supreme state where the difference between the Creator and the creations nullified, the book is strictly theistic and not atheistic.

Sociology

It is said that social inequality and destruction of caste ethics are the main aspects of the Kali Yuga. So the entire book focuses on social equality and strictly against Jati or the Indian caste system. But it also says that the 'Varnashrama Dharma' system was perfect till the end of Dvapara Yuga. Also, there are traces of references to leading a chaste life and vegetarian diet. There is a strict condemnation about the religious fundamentalism especially of the Abrahamic traditions.

Philosophy

The key philosophy in the book is that human beings are by themselves separated from God by the influence of Kali, and Vaikundar has come for their redemption.

Bhagavata Purana

The Bhāgavata Purāṇa (Devanāgarī: भागवतपुराण, also known as Śrīmad Bhāgavatam, or Bhāgavata) is one of the "Maha" Puranic texts of Sanskrit literature, with its primary focus on bhakti (religious devotion) to the incarnations of Vishnu, particularly Krishna.[1] The Sanskrit text comprises twelve skandas (cantos or books) and some 18,000 verses.[2] The Bhāgavata includes many stories well known in Vedic tradition, including the various avatars of Vishnu and the life of Krishna. It was the first Purana to be translated into a European language, with three French translations also between 1840 and 1857.[1]
Like all Puranas, the Bhāgavata is a product of oral tradition, its extant version usually dated to the ninth or tenth century CE.[1][3] The tradition of the Vaisnava scholars of the text puts it contemporary with date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami; 18 July 3228 BCE. The text itself credits Veda Vyasa with its authorship.
The intense and personal bhakti described in the Bhāgavata is directed toward Krishna as God in human form. The tenth book (or canto), which is dedicated to Krishna, takes up about one quarter of the entire Bhāgavata.[1] It includes the most comprehensive collection of stories about the life of Krishna, showing him in all the stages and conditions of human life. It also includes instruction in the practice of bhakti, an analysis of bhakti, and descriptions of the different types of bhakti.[4] Many vaishnavas consider Srimad Bhagvatam to be non-different from Krishna and to be literary form of Krishna.
The Bhāgavata takes the form of a story recounting Vyasa's work being recited for the first time by his son Śuka to the dying King Parikshit, who owes his life to Krishna. Longing to hear of Krishna before he dies, Parikshit hears the Bhāgavata recited by Śuka, including questions by the king and replies by the sage, over the course of seven days.

Significance

The Bhāgavata is widely recognized as the best known and most influential of the Puranas, and is sometimes referred to as the "Fifth Veda".[6][7] It is unique in Indian religious literature for its emphasis on the practice of bhakti, compared to the more theoretical bhakti of the Bhagavad Gita; for its redefining of dharma; and for the extent of its description of God in a human-like form.[4] It is also the source for many of the popular stories of Krishna's childhood told for centuries in the Indian subcontinent.[1] Charlotte Vaudeville refers to the Bhāgavata as "the real Bible of Krishnaism",[7] while the Bhāgavata declares itself as the essence of Vedanta:
The Sri Bhāgavata is the very essence of all the Vedanta literature. One who has enjoyed the nectar of its rasa never has any desire for anything else.(12.13.15)[8]
The Bhāgavata, along with the Bhagavad Gita, are the main sources of scriptural authority used by Gaudiya Vaishnavas for demonstrating the pre-eminence of Krishna over other forms of God. An oft-quoted verse from the Bhāgavata is used as a representational statement by Krishna sects to show that Krishna is "Bhagavan Svayam", or God himself: "These [other incarnations] are amsha, or kala, partial incarnations, but krishnas tu bhagavan svayam, 'Krishna is Bhagavan, God himself.'"(1.3.28).[9]
The 15th–16th century Assamese translation of the Purana (Bhagavat of Sankardeva) by Srimanta Sankardeva and others form the central text of the Ekasarana Dharma, a monotheistic religion in Assam. Sankardeva's rendering of the tenth Book, locally called daxama, is particularly popular.

Origin and date

The Puranas are a type of traditional Hindu texts that took form during the medieval period, often both informed by earlier material and undergoing later interpolations.[11] It is therefore problematic to assign a precise date to any such text,[1][3][12] The Bhāgavata Purāṇa itself is a typical case, a text transformed by oral tradition which reached its "basic final shape" at some stage during the Indian Middle Ages.[11]
Scholarly consensus holds that the text was completed no later than around 1000 CE, when it is mentioned by al Biruni and quoted by Abhinavagupta; the earliest suggestions of it are the composition of the Vishnu Purana and Harivamsa, and the Vaishnava Bhakti movement in South India, which limit its composition to after 500 CE.[6][13] Within this range, scholars such as R. C. Hazra date it to the first-half of the sixth century, while most others place it in the post-Alvar period around the ninth century.[3][6][14] The final redactor of the text was emphasizing the texts's claim to ancient origns by resorting to an archaizing Vedic flavour of Sanskrit.[15]
The Bhāgavata itself claims primordial origins, while accepting that it has since been edited by human and divine hands.[11] The text and Hindu tradition ascribe its authorship to Veda Vyasa, who is also credited as the scribe for the Vedas.[6]
The Bhāgavata Purāṇa contains apparent references to the South Indian Alvar saints and it makes a post factum prophecy of the spread of Vishnu worship in Tamil country (BP XI.5.38–40);[6][13] these facts, along with its emphasis on "emotional Bhakti to Krishna" and the "Advaita philosophy of Sankara", lead many scholars to trace its origins to South India.[4] However, J. A. B. van Buitenen, a late professor of Indology at the University of Chicago points out that 10th–11th CE South Indian Vaishnava theologians Yamuna and Ramanuja do not refer to Bhāgavata Purāṇa in their writings, and this anomaly needs to be explained before the geographical origins and dating are regarded as definitive.[6][13]

Philosophy

The Bhāgavata is primarily a bhakti text, with an emphasis on achieving moksha through cultivating a personal relationship with Vishnu in the form of Krishna. The philosophy and teachings of the Bhāgavata include several traditions, and an absence of a "narrow, sectarian spirit". While Bhakti Yoga is the prominent teaching, various passages show a synthesis that also include Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta, and Advaita Vedanta.[16]

Bhakti

The Bhāgavata is among the most important texts on bhakti, presenting a fully developed teaching on bhakti that originated with the Bhagavad Gita.[17] Bhakti is presented as a path of yoga, or "union with the divine". Many of the bhakti teachings in the Bhāgavata are presented as yogic activities—meditating on the lila of Krishna; hearing and singing about Vishnu/Krishna; remembering, serving, and worshiping him; dedicating all of one's actions to him—all are among nine activities of Bhakti Yoga taught in the Bhāgavata. While classical yoga attempts to shut down the mind and senses, the Bhakti Yoga in the Bhāgavata teaches that the focus of the mind is transformed by filling the mind with thoughts of Krishna.[18]
There are many didactic philosophical passages, but the lengthy narrative stories are also a teaching; the book describes one of the activities that lead to liberation (moksha) as listening to and reflecting on the stories of Bhagavan.[19] Even Kapila, the Samkhya philosopher, teaches his mother that in order to reach liberation, she must have bhakti, jñāna (wisdom), and vairāgya (dispassion), with bhakti being the most important.(3.25.18)[20]
The Bhāgavata also teaches that bhakti is more important than caste, stating that even a Chandala who has deep faith and devotion is dearer to God than a brahmin without faith.(III.33.7) While not completely dismissing the caste system, it does reject the superiority of the brahmin based solely on birth. In the Bhāgavata, devotees of Krishna include those from lower castes: Prahlad, considered the greatest of devotees, is the son of a demon king and of 'low birth'; the gopis are uneducated wives of herdsman, yet are very close to Krishna. The Bhāgavata held out the possibility of salvation through devotion (bhakti) regardless of caste or social status. The Bhāgavata is also critical of the acquisition, protection, and enjoyment of wealth, going as far as implying that only the poor can be true followers of bhakti. In one passage, Krishna says to Rukmini, "We are poor and we are always the favourites of poor persons."(X.60.14)[21]

Samkhya

Surendranath Dasgupta describes the theistic Samhkhya taught by Kapila in the Bhāgavata as the dominant philosophy in the text.[22] In the Bhāgavata, Kapila is described as an avatar of Vishnu, born into the house of Kardama in order to share the knowledge of self-realization and liberation. Kapila's Samkhya is taught by him to his mother Devahuti in Book Three, and by Krishna to Uddhava in Book Eleven.[23] Samkhya in the Bhāgavata is presented somewhat differently than in other classical Samkhya texts.[24] It describes Brahman, or Bhagavan, as creating all beings within his Self in latent form—then, on its own initiative, bringing itself into Maya and falling " under the influence of its own power". This is in contrast to classical Samkhya, where the impulse for creation is "inherent in primal nature", or prakriti.[23]
The treatment of Samkhya in the Bhāgavata is changed by the text's emphasis on devotion.[23] In Chapter Eleven, Krishna describes the world as an illusion, and the individual as dreaming, even while in the waking state. He gives Samhkhya and Yoga as the way of overcoming the dream, with the goal of Samhkhya as Bhagavan himself in the aspect of Krishna.[23]

Advaita

The Bhāgavata frequently discusses the merging of the individual soul with the Absolute Brahman, or "the return of Brahman into His own true nature", a distinctly advaitic or non-dualistic philosophy. In the same passages, the Bhāgavata still recommends Bhagavan as the object of concentration for reaching that goal.[16] Scholars describe this philosophy as "Advaitic Theism",[11][25] which combines the seemingly contradictory beliefs of a personal God that can be worshiped with a God that is immanent in creation and in one's own self. Daniel P. Sheridan describes Advaitic Theism as a "both/and" solution for the question of whether God is transcendent or immanent in relation to creation, and credits the Bhāgavata with a "truly creative religious moment" for introducing this philosophy.[25]

Dharma

Bhāgavata extends the concept of dharma that had previously been regarded either as the duty to follow Vedic injunctions, as a moral code that emphasizes ahimsa (non-injury), satya (truthfullness) etc., or as the idea of self-realization through yoga. Breaking with these senses of the term, Bhāgavata considers dharma to consist of sincere worship and devotion towards God without any ulterior motive. Such worship is said to cleanse the spirit of all impurities—motives, jealousies, pretensions, etc.—and reveal man's nature as part of the absolute, leading to supreme bliss. Conversely, Bhāgavata teaches that simply following Vedic injunctions that do not produce devotion towards God are of transitory benefit and are fruitless labour.[26]

Yoga

A classical approach to yoga is taught in the beginning of the second chapter, when Śuka tells Parikshit to prepare for death by making an asana (place to sit) in a solitary place and meditating on Om, without regard for the distractions caused by the lower qualities of raja and tama guna. Śuka also describes different meditations on the gross and subtle aspects of Bhagavan, or God, in a way that is similar to the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[16] Several passages describe the merging of the individual soul with the Absolute Brahman. The Bhāgavata, in explaining the method of reaching that goal, recommends the object of concentration as Bhagavan, with an emphasis on yoga as a form of bhakti.[16]
Siddhis, or spiritual powers developed through yoga practice, are described in many passages in ways that echo the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The tenth chapter of the eleventh skanda teaches that the yogi who has controlled his senses and concentrated his mind on Bhagavan develops these siddhis. Patanjali describes siddhis as obstacles to reaching the ultimate goal of yoga (union)—the Bhāgavata describes them as blessings that are present in Bhagavan in infinite form, and given to the yogi in varying degrees depending on the yogi's devotion.[27]

Contents

Narrators and setting

The Bhāgavata is a recounting of events by the storyteller Ugrasrava Sauti (Sūta) to Saunaka and other sages assembled in the Naimisha Forest. As Sūta explains, Veda Vyasa was feeling unsatisfied, even after he made divine knowledge available to humans by writing the Vedas and the Mahabharata. The sage Narada, in his role as intermediary between gods and men, visited Vyasa to inform him that his unease was because he had not yet described the highest goal of knowledge—bhakti, or devotion to God.[1][5]
Sūta recounts the first recital of Vyasa's work, given by Vyasa's son Śuka to King Parikshit, the grandson of Arjuna. Parikshit, who owed his life to Krishna, had angered a rishi's son for being disrespectful to the rishi's father. He was cursed to be bitten by a poisonous snake and had only seven days to live. Fasting by the banks of the Ganges River, and with Krishna no longer alive, Parikshit longed to hear of him. The Bhāgavata introduces the life of Parikshit as background, thus bringing Krishna into the story, and is presented as part of Śuka's recital over the course of seven days. It concludes with Śuka asking Parikshit the standard, "What more do you want?"(12.5.13) Completely satisfied with what he has heard and his purpose in life fulfilled, Parikshit dies.(12.6.12–15)[5]

Books

Book 1

The first book introduces the Bhāgavata, with Saunaka gathering the sages in Naimisha Forest to hear Sūta praise bhakti to Krishna and describe the ten avatars of Vishnu. Sūta tells the story of the life of Parikshit, son of Abhimanyu, beginning while still in his mother's womb, where Krishna protected him from the Brahmastra weapon of Ashwatthama. The conclusion of Parikshit's life introduces the main storyline of the Bhāgavata—a curse is placed on Parikshit that will cause him to die within seven days. Parikshit retires to the bank of the Ganges to fast until his death, with several sages gathered around him, including Śuka, son of Vyasa. Parikshit asks Śuka what he should do to prepare for death. Śuka's response constitutes the main part of the Bhāgavata.[28]

Book 2

Śuka tells Parikishit that when one is about to die, they should become free of the fear of death and let go of all attachments to pleasure, home, and family. They should control the breath and mind and concentrate on the sacred Aum. The development of yoga and bhakti, different types of dharana, the nature of Bhagavan, and the liberation of a yogi upon his death are also explained by Śuka. In response to Parikshit's questions, Śuka describes creation and the avatars of Vishnu, concluding with a description of the ten characteristics of a Purana.[28]

Book 3

Vidura's pilgrimage to various holy places provides the backdrop for the stories and spiritual teachings in Book 3. Near the Yamuna River Vidura meets Uddhava, who gives him the news of the Kurukshetra War and about Krishna leaving this world. Next he meets the sage Maitreya, who gives instruction on the creation of the world, the divisions of time, and other subjects. The story of the birth of Hiranyakasipu and Hiranyaksa is told, including the latter's death at the hands of Varaha, the boar avatar of Vishnu. An important story is the tale of Devahuti and her son Kapila—Kapila's Samkhya teachings help lead her to final liberation.

Book 4

The story of Daksha and his sacrifice is told, in which he mocks Shiva in front of Dakshayani—his own daughter and Shiva's consort—resulting in Dakshayani's self-immolation, which later came to be known by one of her names, Sati. The legend of Dhruva's penance and devotion to Vishnu is also recounted, along with the related story of king Prithu. The book ends with the recounting of the renunciation and liberation of the Pracetas brothers.[28]

Book 5

The story of Manu's sons and their children leads eventually to Bharat and a description of the world, the sun and its course, the moon and the planets, the regions below the earth, and the twenty-eight hells (naraka).[28]

Book 6

Book 6 includes the story of Ajāmila, who reached heaven as a reward for uttering the syllables "Na-ra-ya-na" on his deathbed, even though he was only intending to call his son. The story of the son of the Praceta brothers is also recounted, along with the victory of Indra over Viśvarūpa. Book 6 ends with the birth of the Maruts.

Book 7

The main portion of the seventh book is dedicated to the well known story of Hiranyakaśipu, his son Prahlada, and the death of Hiranyakaśipu at the hands of Narasimha, an avatar of Vishnu. This version expands on the story of Prahlada as told in the Vishnu Purana, and is the form that is most commonly told in Hinduism. Prahlada is considered a great devotee of Vishnu, and describes the process of bhakti toward Bhagavan. Book seven also includes a discussion of the dharma involved with the different varnas and with the four ashramas (stages) of life.[28]

Book 8

The description of the six past Manvantaras (ages or time periods of Manu) and the seven future ages of Manu includes several stories, many involving the avatars of Vishnu. Nine chapters are dedicated to the oft told story of Vishnu's Vamana (dwarf) avatar and his defeat of Bali. The story of the churning of the ocean of milk [29] is also recounted, which is done with the help of the Kurma avatar of Vishnu.[28]

Book 9

The current age of Manu is described at length, including the traditional history of the Solar Dynasty founded by Ikshvaku and the Lunar Dynasty of Pururavas. A long history of dynasties is described—Panchala, Magadha, Kuru, Anu, Druhyus, Turvasu, and others—leading up to the Yadu dynasty and the birth of Krishna to his parents Vasudeva and Devaki.

Book 10

The tenth book, dedicated to Krishna, is responsible for the widespread popularity of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa. Book Ten includes the most enduring images and stories of Krishna: the mischievous child who steals butter; the godlike child who holds the entire universe within himself; the boy who can slay demons and move an entire mountain with one finger; the cowherd who is the love of all the gopis, making them leave all their duties to follow him.[30]
The tenth book is by far the lengthiest, taking up almost one quarter of the entire Bhāgavata. While the Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita show Krishna in various roles as teacher and diplomat, book 10 shows Krishna simply engaging in lila, or divine and intimate play with his devotees. It presents this intimate relationship with God as the highest goal of human existence.

Book 11

The destruction of the Yadava dynasty, including Krishna and all his kinsmen, is caused by the curse of a brahmin—instigated by Krishna himself. The Yadavas kill each other in a drunken fight and Krishna dies as a result of the same curse, the result of a metal-tipped arrow striking his foot. The last chapter describes Krishna's ascent to Vaikuntha. Book eleven also includes the so-called Uddhava Gita, the last discourse of Krishna which he addresses to his dear friend Uddhava.[28] Canto or Book 11 section 7-9 discusses the pastimes and realizations of an Avadhuta.

Book 12

The future rulers of Magadha are predicted, along with the evils of Kali Yuga and the future destruction of the world (pralaya). The main story ends with the death of King Parikshit—cursed to die from snakebite—and the thwarted snake sacrifice of his son Janamejaya. The text finally concludes with a second description of the ten characteristics of a purana, the life of Markandeya, a summary of the Bhāgavata, and the assurance that it is the greatest among puranas.

Theatre and dance

The Bhagavata cult centred around the worship of Krishna and the related puranas, played a central role in the development of theatre and dance in India, particularly through the tradition of Ras and Leela, which are dramatic enactments of Krishna wooing gopis (cow herding girls), and episodes from his life, respectively. Though this dance-theatre tradition predates the composition of the Harivamsa, Vishnu and Bhagavata Purana, they were significant in its evolution.[32] In particular, many Ras plays dramatise episodes related in the Rasa Panchadhyayi ("Five chapters of the Celestial Dance"; Book 10, chapters 29–33) of Bhagavatam.[33] The purana accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as religious ritual, which cleanses the hearts of faithful actors and listeners and gains them para bhakti (supreme devotion) towards the Lord. Bhagavatam also encouraged theatrical performance as a means to propagate the faith (BP 11.11.23 and 36, 11.27.35 and 44, etc.), and this led to the emergence of several theatrical forms centred around Krishna all across India.[34]
In Book 10, Bhagavatam describes Krishna dancing the Tandava, a vigorous dance, on the hood of the cobra Kāliyā. This is regarded as the origins of the classical dance style of Kathak, and has influenced other forms including Odissi, Manipuri and Bharatnatyam.[35]

Commentaries

The oldest exegetical commentary presently known is Tantra-Bhāgavata from the pancaratra school. From the modern age there is Sridhara Swami's Bhavartha-dipika written in 11th century CE, then later, Madhvacharya (c 13th century CE) wrote the Bhagavata Tatparya Nirnaya. Other commentaries are: Hanumad-Bhasya, Vasana-bhasya, Sambandhoki, Vidvat-kamadhenu, Tattva-dipika, Paramahamsa-priya, Suka-hridaya. Vopadeva wrote the Mukta-phala and the Hari-lilamrita. Vijayadhvaja composed the Pada-ratnavali. Viraraghava also edited The Bhāgavata-Candrika (from Ramanuja's school). Other works are the Suvodhini by Vallabha and Bhakti-ratnavali by Visnupuri. Among the Gaudiya Vaishnava commentaries there are Jiva Goswami's Krama-sandarbha (16th century CE), the Sarartha Darsini by Vishvanatha Chakravarti (17th century), the Dipikadipani by Radharamana, Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati's Gaudiya-bhasya (20th century).

Translations

  • A Telugu version was rendered by the poet Pothana in the fifteenth century.
  • The transcreated work, known as the Bhagavata of Sankaradeva, is the primary theological source for Mahapurushiya Dharma in the Indian state of Assam. Sankaradeva (1449-1568 AD) drew inspiration chiefly from the Bhagavata and he himself undertook the task of rendering of the major portion, namely Books I, II, III, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII.[36] Besides the rendering, he composed a large number of works with materials from the Bhagavata such as the Kirttana Ghosha which is an anthology (kavya-kosh) of more than two dozen epics of various magnitudes. Most of the poems of the Kirttana are renderings or adaptations from the Bhagavata Purana.[37] His Nimi Nava Siddha Samvada is a doctrinal treatise based on Book XI of the Bhagavata. His Anadi Patana is mainly an adaptation from Book III of the Bhagavata. The Gunamala, the 'Garland of Praises (for Lord Krishna)' written by Sankaradeva is a little handbook capturing in racy, rhyming and sonorous verses, the essence of the Bhagavata Purana.[38] Within the compass of a single laudatory verse, the poet recounts many incidents from Krishna's life making them easy to remember. This 'pocket-Bhagavata' is a sacred text for all Assamese Vaisnavas and is often placed in the pedestal or the Guru-Asana (sacred throne) in the congregational prayer-house called Namghar as the object of veneration. See English translation of Sankaradeva's Gunamala
  • The 16th century Maharashtrian poet Eknath wrote a scholarly commentary on the 11th Canto of the Shrimad Bhagavatam named "Ekanathi Bhagavata" in Marathi, the vernacular language of the Indian state of Maharashtra.
  • The first translation of the Bhagavata into French was made by Eugene Burnouf in 1840.
  • Swami Prabhavananda wrote an English version that is part translation, part summary and paraphrase, titled The Wisdom of God: Srimat Bhagavatam.
  • Asthana Vidwan Motaganahalli Ramashesha Shastri has written a Kannada translation, Bhagavata Maha Purana.
  • Gita Press has a two-volume English and Hindi translation (with Sanskrit text and English translation).
  • Kamala Subramanian has written a concise version of this book in English.
  • Another translation of Book X was published on Writers Workshop in 1997, transcreated by Nandini Nopani and P. Lal.

 

Brahmana

The Brāhmaṇas (Devanagari: ब्राह्मणम्) are part of the Hindu śruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing the proper performance of rituals.
Each Vedic shakha (school) had its own Brahmana, and it is not known how many of these texts existed during the Mahajanapadas period. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. Additionally, there are a handful of fragmentarily preserved texts. They vary greatly in length; the edition of the Shatapatha Brahmana fills five volumes of the Sacred Books of the East, while the Vamsa Brahmana can be printed on a single page.
The Brahmanas are glosses on the mythology, philosophy and rituals of the Vedas. Whereas the Rig Veda expressed uncertainty and was not dogmatic, the Brahmanas express confidence in the infallible power of the mantras. The Brahmanas hold the view that, if expressed correctly, the texts will not fail. They were composed during a period of urbanisation and considerable social change.[1]During the first millennium bce the people who composed the Veda gradually abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and began to build. During this time the rituals became more complex, giving rise to developments in mathematics, geometry, animal anatomy and grammar.[2]
The Brahmanas were seminal in the development of later Indian thought and scholarship, including Hindu philosophy, predecessors of Vedanta, law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics (Pāṇini), the concept of Karma, or the stages in life such as brahmacarya, grihastha and eventually, sannyasi. Some Brahmanas contain sections that are Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right.
The language of the Brahmanas is a separate stage of Vedic Sanskrit, younger than the text of the samhitas (the mantra text of the Vedas proper) but for the most part older than the text of the Sutras. It dates to 900- 700 BC. with some of the younger Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana) , dating to about the 6th century BC.[3] Historically, this corresponds to the emergence of great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas out of the earlier tribal kingdoms during the later Vedic period

List of Brahmanas

Each Brahmana is associated with one of the four Vedas, and within the tradition of that Veda with a particular shakha or school:

Rigveda

Yajurveda

Krishna Yajurveda

  • In the Krishna Yajurveda, the Brahmana texts are integrated in the samhitas.
    • Maitrayani Samhita (MS) and an Aranyaka (= accented Maitrayaniya Upanishad)
    • (Caraka) Katha Samhita (KS); the Katha school has an additional fragmentary Brahmana (KathB) and Aranyaka (KathA)
    • Kapisthalakatha Samhita (KpS), and a few fragments of its Brahmana
    • Taittiriya Samhita (TS). The Taittiriya school has an additional Taittiriya Brahmana (TB) and Aranyaka (TA) as well as the late Vedic Vadhula Anvakhyana (Br.)

Shukla Yajurveda

  • Madhyandina Shakha
  • Kanva Shakha
    • Shatapatha Brahmana, Kanva recension (SBK)

Samaveda

  • Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas
    • Tandya Mahabrahmana or Panchavimsha Brahmana (Pañcaviṃśa Brāhmaṇa) (PB) is the principal Brahmana of both the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas.
    • Sadvimsha Brahmana (Ṣaḍviṃṡa Brāhmaṇa) (ṢadvB) is considered as an appendix to the Panchavimsha Brahmana and its twenty-sixth prapathaka.
    • Samavidhana Brahmana comprises 3 prapathakas.
    • Arsheya Brahmana is an index to the hymns of Samaveda.
    • Devatadhyaya or Daivata Brahmana comprises 3 khandas, having 26, 11 and 25 kandikas respectively.
    • Chandogya Brahmana is divided in to ten prapathakas (chapters). Its first two prapathakas (chapters) form the Mantra Brahmana (MB) and each of them is divided into eight khandas (sections). Prapathakas 3–10 form the Chandogya Upanishad.
    • Samhitopanishad Brahmana has a single prapathaka (chapter) divided in to five khandas (sections).
    • Vamsa Brahmana consists of one short chapter, detailing successions of teachers and disciples.[6]
  • Jaiminiya shakha
    • Jaiminiya Brahmana (JB) is the principal Brahmana of the Jaiminiya shakha, divided into three kandas (sections).
    • Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana is also an index to the hymns of Samaveda, belonging to the Jaiminiya shakha.
    • Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana (JUB) also known as Talavakara Upanishad Brahmana.

Atharvaveda

Brahma Sutras

The Brahma sūtras (Sanskrit: ब्रह्म सूत्र), also known as the Vedānta Sūtras (वेदान्त सूत्र), are one of the three canonical texts of the Vedānta school of Hindu philosophy. A thorough study of Vedānta requires a close examination of these three texts, known in Sanskrit as the Prasthanatrayi, or the three starting points. The Brahma sutras constitute the Nyāya prasthāna (न्याय प्रस्थान), or "Logic-based starting point",[citation needed] of the above triplet (Sanskrit न्याय, Nyāya: logic, order). Thus they are also referred to as the Yukti prasthāna, since Yukti (युक्ति) also means reasoning or logic. While the Upanishads (Śruti prasthāna, the starting point of revelation) and the Bhagavad-Gītā (Smriti prasthāna, the starting point of remembered tradition) are the basic source texts of Vedānta, it is in the Brahma sūtras that the teachings of Vedānta are set forth in a systematic and logical order.
The task of reconciling the different Vedic texts, indicating their mutual relations, is assigned to a scripture called the Mimāṃsā (मीमांसा) which means investigation or inquiry. In the orthodox Hindu tradition, Mimāṃsā is divided into two systems, the Purva-Mimāṃsā by Jaimini which is concerned with the correct interpretation of the Vedic ritual and Uttara-Mimāṃsā by Badarayana which is called Brahma-Mimāṃsā or Sariraka-Mimāṃsā which deals chiefly with the nature of Brahman, the status of the world and the individual self. Since it attempts to determine the exact nature of these entities it is also called nirnāyaka-shāstra.
The Brahma sūtra is the exposition of the philosophy of the Upanishads. It is an attempt to systematise the various strands of the Upanishads which form the background of the orthodox systems of thought. It is also called Uttara-Mimāṃsā or the investigation of the later part of the Vedas, as distinguished from the Mimāṃsā of the earlier part of the Vedas and the Brahmanas which deal with ritual or karma-kānda. It is intended to be a summary of the teaching of the Upanishads.

Author

The Brahma Sutras are attributed to Badarayana. While the earlier commentators like Adi Shankara treat Bādarāyaņa, the author of the Brahma Sūtra, as the Jnana-Shakti Avatara (knowledge-power incarnation) of God, Vaishnavite tradition identifies him with Krishna Dwipayana Vyāsa, the author of the Mahābhārata.

Commentaries

Many commentaries have been written on this text, the earliest extant one being the one by Sri Adi Shankara. His commentary set forth the non-dualistic (Advaita) interpretation of the Vedānta, and was commented upon by Vācaspati and Padmapāda. These sub-commentaries, in turn, inspired other derivative texts in the Advaita school.
Ramanuja also wrote a commentary on the Brahma sutra, called Sri Bhasya, which lays the foundations of the Vishishtadvaita tradition. In this, he firmly refutes the Advaita view as proposed by Adi Shankara in his commentary.
In the 12-13th century, Madhvacharya wrote commentaries on Brahma Sutras, which describe the supremacy of Lord Vishnu or Narayana. Thus he laid out the foundation for Tatvavaada or Dvaita tradition of Vedanta refuting all the previous commentaries on Brahma Sutras. Madhvacharya's four commentaries on Brahma Sutras are, 1-Brahma Sutra Bhashya, 2-Nyaya Vivarana, 3-Anuvyakhyana, 4-Brahma Sutra Anubhashya. Sri Jayatirtha wrote an extant subcommentary to Madhvacharya's Anuvyakhyana called Nyaya Sudha (Nectar of Logic) which is considered as magnum opus in Madhvacharya's school. Dr Surendranath Dasgupta in his work "A History of Indian Philosophy" (Vol IV) has cited, "In my opinion Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha present the highest dialectical skill in Indian thought".
Other commentators on the Brahma Sūtras, belonging to other schools of Vedānta, include Bhāskara, Yādavaprakāśa, Keśava, Nīlakaņţha, Vallabha, Vijnanabhiksu, Nimbarka, Baladeva Vidyābhūshaņa and Haridas Shastri.

Overview

The Brahma Sūtras are also known by other names: Vedānta Sūtras, Uttara Mīmāmsā-sūtras, Śārīraka Sūtras, Śārīraka Mimāmsā-sūtras. Vaishnavas also call this the Bhikṣu sūtras.
The Brahma Sūtras attempt to reconcile the seemingly contradictory and diverse statements of the various Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gītā, by placing each teaching in a doctrinal context. The word "sūtra" means "thread", and the Brahma sūtras literally stitch together the various Vedanta teachings into a logical and self-consistent whole.
However, the Brahma Sūtras are so terse that not only are they capable of being interpreted in multiple ways, but they are often incomprehensible without the aid of the various commentaries handed down in the main schools of Vedānta thought.
The Vedānta Sūtras supply ample evidence that at a very early time, i.e. a period before their own final composition, there were differences of opinion among the various interpreters of the Vedānta. Quoted in the Vedānta Sūtras are opinions ascribed to Audulomi, Kārshnāgni, Kāśakŗtsna, Jaimini and Bādari, in addition to Vyasa.
These sūtras systematize the jñānakāņda (path of wisdom, as opposed to Karmakāņda, the path of action) of the Veda, by combining the two tasks of concisely stating the teaching of the Veda and argumentatively establishing the specific interpretation of the Veda adopted in the sūtras.
The sūtras also discuss the role of karma and God and critically address the various doctrines associated with Buddhism, Jainism, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Shaiva, Shakta, Atheism, and Sankhya philosophies.

Structure

The Brahma Sūtras consist of 555 aphorisms or sūtras, in four chapters (adhyāya), each chapter being divided into four quarters (pāda). Each quarter consists of several groups of sūtras called Adhikaraņas or topical sections. An Adhikaraņa usually consists of several sūtras, but some have only one sūtra.

4 Chapters

  • First chapter (Samanvaya: harmony): explains that all the Vedānta texts talk of Brahman, the ultimate reality, which is the goal of life. The very first sūtra offers an indication into the nature of the subject matter. VS 1.1.1 athāto brahma jijñāsā - Now: therefore the inquiry (into the real nature) of Brahman.
  • Second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict): discusses and refutes the possible objections to Vedānta philosophy.
  • Third chapter (Sādhana: the means): describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved.
  • Fourth chapter (Phala: the fruit): talks of the state that is achieved in final emancipation

































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