The Vedas
Main article: Vedas
The Vedas form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature[1]
and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.[2]According to the Rigveda, the Vedic Mantras were composed by various seers who had 'seen' (dṛś) them in deep concentration (dhī). However, to post-Vedic tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not human compositions",[3] being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").[4][5] A number of Vedic mantras are recited as Hindu prayers, at religious functions and other auspicious occasions.
The philosophies and religious sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken various positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other Indian philosophies, such as Buddhism, Jainism and materialism, did not accept the authority of the Vedas (but did not deny the Vedas) and the former two evolved into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-Vedic" (nāstika) schools.[6]
The four Vedas are the Ṛig-, Yajur-, Sāma- and Atharva Vedas. They are transmitted in various shākhās, or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, various early different commentaries (Brahmanas) and instructions (Sutras) are associated with each Veda.
- The Ṛigveda contains hymns (mantras) addressed to the gods that contain much of the mythology and ancient-most Vedic ritual practice;
- The Sāmaveda consists almost exclusively of mantras from the Rig Veda, arranged in an order that was used for singing at the Soma sacrifice;
- The Yajurveda contains prose mantras and verses extracted from the Rigveda used in ritual,in addition to detailed prose 'commentaries' (brāhmaṇa sections) on the sacrifices; and
- The Atharvaveda comprises magical spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes made during the sacrificial ritual, as well as hymns dealing with household and royal rites, and in the speculative books (8-12) some spiritual content.[7]
- The Mantra portion, also called the Saṃhitā (संहिता), is a collection of hymns and prose mantras to be used in Vedic sacrifices.
- The Brāhmaṇas portion (ब्राह्मण) (not to be confused with Brahman, or the brahmin caste), contains the explanation of some of the mantras as well as prose commentaries explaining the meaning of the mantras and rituals.
Rishi
Rishi (Sanskrit: ṛṣi, Devanagari: ऋषि) denotes the composers of Vedic hymns. However, according to post-Vedic tradition, the rishi is a "seer" to whom the Vedas were "originally revealed" through states of higher consciousness. The rishis were prominent when Vedic Hinduism took shape, as far back as some three thousand years ago.Many ancient rishis were male as well as female. Rishi is often used for both, but also mostly for male rishis and rishika for female in Sanskrit.[1] According to the late Vedic Sarvanukramani text, there were as many as 20 women among the authors of the Rig Veda, known as rishika. According to modern teachers Deepak Chopra and Swamini Mayatitananda, this number could be as high as 35.
One of the foundational qualities of a ṛṣi is satyavāc (one who speaks truth) when composing Vedic hymns. According to tradition, other sages might falter, but a ṛṣi was believed to speak only truth, because he or she existed in the Higher World (the unified field of consciousness). Ṛṣis provided knowledge to the world which included the knowledge of Vedas
Etymology
According to Indian tradition, the word was derived from the two meanings of the root rsh. Sanskrit grammarians[2] derive this word from the second root which means (1) "to go, to move" (- Dhātupāṭha of Pānini, xxviii). V. S. Apte[3] gives this particular meaning and derivation, and Monier-Williams[4] also gives the same, with some qualification.Another form of this root means (2) "to flow, to move near by flowing". (All the meanings and derivations cited above are based upon Sanskrit English Dictionary of Monier-Williams).[4] Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great (Sanskrit-to-Sanskrit) dictionary named "ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram" (i.e., "one who reaches beyond this mundane world by means of spiritual knowledge").
More than a century ago, Monier-Williams tentatively suggested a derivation from drś "to see".[5] Monier-Wiliams also quotes the Hibernian (Irish) form arsan (a sage, a man old in wisdom) and arrach (old, ancient, aged) as related to rishi. In Sanskrit, forms of the root rish become arsh- in many words, (e.g., arsh. Monier-Williams also conjectures that the root drish (to see) might have given rise to an obsolete root rish meaning "to see".
However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš[6] "an ecstatic" (see also Yurodivy, Vates). Yet, the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h3er-s meaning "rise, protrude", in the sense of "excellent, egregious".
Modern etymological explanations such as by Manfred Mayrhofer in his Etymological Dictionary[7] leave the case open, and do not prefer a connection to ṛṣ "pour, flow" (PIE *h1ers), rather one with German rasen "to be ecstatic, be in a different state of mind" (and perhaps Lithuanian aršus).
Other uses
In Carnatic Music, "Rishi" is the seventh chakra (group) of Melakarta ragas. The names of chakras are based on the numbers associated with each name. In this case, there are seven rishis and hence the 7th chakra is "Rishi".[8][9]"Seer" of the Vedas
In the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Ṛgvedic hymns, who alone or with others invokes the deities with poetry. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda. Post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as "sages" or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men.The main rishis recorded in the Brahmanas and the Rigveda-Anukramanis include Gritsamada, Vishvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasishta, Angiras, Kaṇva.
Seven Rishis (the Saptarshi) are often mentioned in the Brahmanas and later works as typical representatives of the pre-historic or mythical period; in Shatapatha Brahmana 14.5.2.6 (Brhad Aranyaka Upanisad), their names are Uddālaka Āruni (also called Gautama), Bharadvaja, Vishvamitra, Jamadagni, Vasishtha, Kashyapa, and Atri. Daksha, Bhrigu and Nārada were also added to the saptarshis riṣis in Āshvalāyana-Shrauta-Sutra, where these ten principals were created by the first Manu (Svāyambhuva Manu) for producing everyone else.
The notable female rishikas who contributed to the composition of the Vedic scriptures are: The Rig Veda mentions Romasha, Lopamudra, Apala, Kadru, Visvavara, Ghosha, Juhu, Vagambhrini, Paulomi, Yami, Indrani, Savitri, and Devajami. The Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana.
In Mahabharata 12, on the other hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya and Vasishtha. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara[4] and not to those of the present manvantara. Each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated.
In addition to the Saptarṣi, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi. Devarṣi, Paramrṣi, Shrutarṣi and Kāndarṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa.
The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts 'riṣi' at the seventh place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha[10] (the famous Sanskrit synonym lexicon compiled by Amarasimha) mentions seven types of riṣis : Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi. Amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc.
The Upanishads
Main article: Upanishad
The Upanishads literally mean "sittings
near, laying siege to a Teacher" to acquire knowledge. They are part of
the Shruti and primarily discuss early philosophy; they also contain accounts
of various debates between contemporary priests and sages. There are more than
200 texts counted as Upanishads; however, only 13 are generally accepted as primary.Post-Vedic Hindu scriptures
The new texts that appeared afterwards were called Smriti. Smriti literature includes Itihasas (epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata), Harivamsa Puranas, Agamas and Darshanas.The Dharmashastras (law books), though derivatives of earlier Vedic texts such as the Dharmasutras, are traditionally considered as part of the Smrti. From time to time great law-givers (e.g. Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parashara) emerged, who collected existing customs and laws and to ensure that the then way of life was consistent with both the Vedic spirit and the changing times. However, Dharmashastras have been disregarded by many groups of Hindus, namely those following Vedanta, Bhakti, bhakti and Tantra streams of Hinduism, even if they practically speaking still follow the samskaras from birth to death.
One aspect of the philosophy reflected in the epics is the concept of Avatar (appearance of God on the Earth). The two main avataras of Vishnu that appear in the epics are Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, and Krishna, the protagonist in the Mahabharata. Unlike some of the deities of the Vedic Samhitas and the all-pervading and formless Brahman of the Upanishads, the avataras have more developed personalities, as loving and righteous descents of the Supreme Being among mortals.
The Bhagavad Gita
Main article: Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita is a 700–verse Hindu scripture that is
part of the ancient Sanskrit epic Mahabharata.
This scripture contains a conversation between Pandava
prince Arjuna
and his guide Krishna
on a variety of philosophical issues. Commentators see the setting of the Gita
in a battlefield as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the
human life. The Bhagavad Gita's call for selfless action inspired many leaders
of the Indian independence movement including Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who referred
to the Gita as his "spiritual dictionary". Numerous commentaries have
been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the
essentials, beginning with Adi Sankara's commentary on the Gita in the eighth century CE.The Puranas
Main article: Puranas
The Puranas are a vast medieval literature of
stories and allegory. Eighteen are considered to be Mahapuranas, or Great Puranas, and
thus authoritative references on the Gods and Goddesses, religious rites and
holy places (most of which are in the Indian subcontinent, known as Bharat). In addition,
there are 19 Upapuranas.The Tevaram Saivite hymns
The Tevaram is a body of remarkable hymns exuding Bhakti composed more than 1400–1200 years ago in the classical Tamil language by three Saivite composers. They are credited with igniting the Bhakti movement in the whole of India.Divya Prabandha Vaishnavite hymns
The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira (4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD[1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The work is the beginning of the canonization of the twelve Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively today. The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamunigal. The Prabandha sings the praise of Sriman Narayana (or Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.
Other Hindu texts
Other famous texts of Hinduism include those of the bhakti yoga school (loving devotion to God) such as the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas (an epic poem based on the Ramayana), the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (a religious song of the divine love of Krishna and his consort Radha), Adi Shankara's commentaries and other works, Ramanujacharya's nine books including "Sri Bhasya", Madhvacharya's commentaries and the Devi Mahatmya (the tales of Devi, the mother goddess, in her many forms as Shakti, Durga, Parvati, etc.).Vedas
The Vedic texts or śruti are organized around four canonical collections of metrical material known as Saṃhitās, of which the first three are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical Vedic religion:
- The Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ;
- The Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest;
- The Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ.
- The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of spells and incantations, apotropaic charms and speculative hymns.[8]
The various Indian philosophies and sects have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.[9][10] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism[11][12] and Brahmoism,[13] many non-Brahmin Hindus in South India [14] do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Certain South Indian Brahmin communities such as Iyengars consider the Tamil Divya Prabandham or writing of the Alvar saints as equivalent to the Vedas
Etymology and usage
The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning "see" or "know".[16]As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore":
yáḥ samídhā yá âhutī / yó védena dadâśa márto
agnáye / yó námasā svadhvaráḥ
"The
mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and
reverence, skilled in sacrifice."[17]
The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος
"aspect", "form" . Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st
and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda,
cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida "I know". Root cognates are
Greek ἰδέα,
English
wit, etc., Latin videō "I
see", etc.[18]In English, the term Veda is often used loosely to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda).
The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge", but can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "with evil knowledge, ignorant".[19]
Chronology
Main article: Vedic period
The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The Samhitas date to
roughly 1500–1000 BCE, and the "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the
Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period,
spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age
and the Iron Age.[20]
The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra
texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over
Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas
with Brahmana
discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha
and Panini
and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael
Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special
reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th c. BCE the
only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He
gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit
literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age)
as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.[21]Transmission of texts in the Vedic period was by oral tradition alone, preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques. A literary tradition set in only in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period, perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition predominated until c. 1000 CE.[22]
Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.[23] The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.
Categories of Vedic texts
The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:- Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India)
- Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"[24]
Vedic Sanskrit corpus
The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:- The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.[25]
- The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
- The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. It is frequently read in secondary literature.
- Some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha).[26][27]
- Certain Sūtra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras.
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten Mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era.
The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism.
The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts.
Volume
I: Samhitas
Volume
II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas
Volume
III: Upanishads
Volume
IV: Vedangas
A revised edition, extending to about 1800
pages, was published in 1973-1976.Shruti literature
Main article: Shruti
The texts considered "Vedic" in the
sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may
include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads
or Sutra literature.
These texts are by many Hindu sects considered to be shruti
(Sanskrit: śruti; "the heard"),
divinely revealed like the Vedas themselves. Texts not considered to be shruti
are known as smriti
(Sanskrit: smṛti;
"the remembered"), of human origin. This indigenous system of
categorization was adopted by Max Müller
and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel
Michaels explains:These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas...; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."[26]
The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together, they are the basis of the Vedanta school.
Vedic schools or recensions
Main article: Shakha
Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has
been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā, literally "branch" or
"limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts.[29] Multiple
recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a
number of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text
were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for
parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process.
(See also: Vedic chant)Prodigous energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.[30] For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated again in the original order.[31]
That these methods have been effective, is testified to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Ṛigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings.[
The four Vedas
The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz.,[34]Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayī vidyā", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).[35][36] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras.
Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sāman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies.
The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively.
The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sanātanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn Śrauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies.
Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī.
Rigveda
Main article: Rigveda
The Rigveda Samhita
is the oldest extant Indic text.[37] It is a
collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in
all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).[38] The hymns are
dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[39]The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries, commonly dated to the period of roughly the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.[40]
There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural Mountains and date to ca. 2000 BCE.[41]
Rig Veda manuscripts have been selected for inscription in UNESCO's "Memory of the World" Register 2007.[42]
Yajurveda
Main article: Yajurveda
The Yajurveda Samhita
consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and
adapted from the Rigveda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must
accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Samaveda, it was compiled to
apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Somayajna.
There are two major groups of recensions
of this Veda, known as the "Black" (Krishna) and "White"
(Shukla) Yajurveda (Krishna and Shukla Yajurveda respectively). While White
Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the e Black Yajurveda
intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda four
major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya).Samaveda
Main article: Samaveda
The Samaveda Samhita
(from sāman,
the term for a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise[43]) consists of
1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 78 stanzas) from the Rigveda.[26]
Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and
adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated more than
once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the
Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.[44] Two major
recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose
was liturgical, as the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests
who took part in the sacrifice.Atharvaveda
Main article: Atharvaveda
The Artharvaveda
Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan
and Angirasa poets. It has 760 hymns, and about 160
of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.[45]
Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.[45]
It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to
the time of the Rigveda,[46] and some parts
of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda[45]
though not in linguistic form.The Atharvaveda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalāda and Śaunaka.[45] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).[47] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated.
Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvanaveda has less connection with sacrifice.[48][49] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.[45][50]
The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns.[51]
The Atharvaveda is a comparatively late extension of the "Three Vedas" connected to priestly sacrifice to a canon of "Four Vedas". This may be connected to an extension of the sacrificial rite from involving three types of priest to the inclusion of the Brahman overseeing the ritual.[52]
The Atharvaveda is concerned with the material world or world of man and in this respect differs from the other three vedas. Atharvaveda also sanctions the use of force, in particular circumstances and similarly this point is a departure from the three other vedas.
Brahmanas
Further information: Brahmanas
The mystical notions surrounding the concept
of the one "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic
philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana
literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified
with Brahman,
the universal principle (ŚBM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vāc "speech" is
called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM 6.5.3.4, 10.5.5.1). The
knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like
mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was
originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapati
reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda").Vedanta
Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads, and Aranyakas
While contemporary traditions continued to
maintain Vedic ritualism (Śrauta,
Mimamsa),
Vedanta
renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of
"Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three
Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka:
"Bhūḥ is the Rigveda, bhuvaḥ is the
Yajurveda, svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the
"essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable Aum (ॐ). Thus,
the Katha Upanishad has:
"The
goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans
desire when they live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum"
(1.2.15)
In post-Vedic literature
Vedanga
Main article: Vedanga
Six technical subjects related to the Vedas
are traditionally known as vedāṅga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte defines this
group of works as:"N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials."[53]
These subjects are treated in Sūtra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit.
The six subjects of Vedanga are:
- Phonetics (Śikṣā)
- Ritual (Kalpa)
- Grammar (Vyākaraṇa)
- Etymology (Nirukta)
- Meter (Chandas)
- Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
Parisista
Main article: Parisista
Pariśiṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to
various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of
ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to
them: the Samhitas,
Brahmanas,
Aranyakas
and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to
which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However,
only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda
is extensive.- The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.
- The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
- The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha)and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa.
- The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa
- For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.[54]
Puranas
Main article: Puranas
A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana
(likely dating to the Gupta period[55]) attributes the
current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.[56] Puranic
tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was
divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana
(3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc.) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further
fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Lord Vishnu in the form
of Vyasa,
in the Dvapara Yuga;
the Vayu Purana
(section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana
(12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was
divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined
in age, virtue and understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana
(9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three
parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga.
The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into
three in Treta Yuga.[57]Upaveda
The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.[58][59] Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:- Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda
- Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
- Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda
- Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda
Upanishads
More than 200 are known, of which the first dozen or so, the oldest and most important, are variously referred to as the principal, main (mukhya) or old Upanishads. With the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahmasutra (known collectively as the Prasthanatrayi),[2] the mukhya Upanishads provide a foundation for several later schools of Indian philosophy (vedanta), among them, two influential monistic schools of Hinduism.[note 1][note 2][note 3]
Historians believe the chief Upanishads were composed over a wide period ranging from the Pre-Buddhist period[6][7] to the early centuries BCE[7] though minor Upanishads were still being composed in the medieval and early modern period.[8] However, there has been considerable debate among authorities about the exact dating of individual Upanishads. The Upanishads were collectively considered amongst the 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written by the British poet Martin Seymour-Smith.[9] Their significance has been recognized by writers and scholars such as Schopenhauer, Emerson and Thoreau, among others. Scholars also note similarity between the doctrine of Upanishads and those of Plato and Kant
Etymology
The Sanskrit term Upaniṣad derives from upa- (nearby), ni- (at the proper place, down) and ṣad (to sit) thus: "sitting down near", implying sitting near a teacher to receive instruction[12] or, alternatively, "sitting at the foot of ..(teacher)", or "laying siege" to the teacher.[13] Monier-Williams' late 19th century dictionary adds that, "according to native authorities Upanishad means 'setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the supreme spirit.'"[14] A gloss of the term Upanishad based on Shri Adi Shankara's commentary on the Kaṭha and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad equates it with Ātmavidyā, that is, "knowledge of the Self", or Brahmavidyā "knowledge of Brahma". Other dictionary meanings include "esoteric doctrine" and "secret doctrine".[15]Classification
There are more than 200 known Upanishads, one of which, the Muktikā, gives a list of 108 Upanishads – this number corresponding to the holy Hindu number of beads on a mala or Hindu rosary. Modern scholars recognize the first 10, 11, 12 or 13 Upanishads as principal or Mukhya Upanishads and the remainder as derived from this ancient canon. If an Upanishad has been commented upon or quoted by revered thinkers like Shankara, it is a Mukhya Upanishad,[1] accepted as shruti by most Hindus.The new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā probably originated in southern India,[16] and are grouped according to their subject as (Sāmānya) Vedānta (philosophical), Yoga, Sanyasa (of the life of renunciation), Vaishnava (dedicated to the god Vishnu), Shaiva (dedicated to Shiva) and Shakti (dedicated to the goddess).[17] New Upanishads are often sectarian since sects have sought to legitimize their texts by claiming for them the status of Śruti.[18]
Another way of classifying the Upanishads is to associate them with the respective Brahmanas. Of nearly the same age are the Aitareya, Kauṣītaki and Taittirīya Upanishads, while the remnant date from the time of transition from Vedic to Classical Sanskrit.[19]
Mukhya Upanishads
Main article: Mukhya Upanishads
The Mukhya Upanishads can themselves be
stratified into periods. Of the early periods are the Brihadaranyaka,
Jaiminiya Upanisadbrahmana and the Chandogya, the most important and the
oldest, of which the two former are the older of the two,[20]
though some parts were composed after the Chandogya.[note 4]It is alleged that the Aitareya, Taittiriya, Kausitaki, Mundaka, Prasna, and Katha Upanishads show Buddha's influence, and must have been composed after the 5th century BCE, but it could just as easily have been the other way around. It is also alleged that in the first two centuries A.D., they were followed by the Kena, Mandukya and Isa Upanishads.[22] Not much is known about the authors except for those, like Yajnavalkayva and Uddalaka, mentioned in the texts.[1] A few women discussants, such as Gargi and Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkayva,[23] also feature occasionally.
Each of the principal Upanishads can be associated with one of the schools of exegesis of the four Vedas (shakhas).[24] Many Shakhas are said to have existed, of which only a few remain. The new Upanishads often have little relation to the Vedic corpus and have not been cited or commented upon by any great Vedanta philosopher: their language differs from that of the classic Upanishads, being less subtle and more formalized. As a result, they are not difficult to comprehend for the modern reader.
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Veda-Shakha-Upanishad association
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Veda
|
Recension
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Principal Upanishad
|
|
|
Rig Veda
|
Only one recension
|
Shakala
|
|
|
Sama Veda
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Only one recension
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Kauthuma
|
|
|
Ranayaniya
|
|
||
|
Yajur Veda
|
Krishna Yajur Veda
|
Katha
|
|
|
Taittirīya and Śvetāśvatara
|
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Maitrayani
|
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Hiranyakeshi
(Kapishthala)
|
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Kathaka
|
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Shukla Yajur Veda
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Vajasaneyi
Madhyandina
|
Isha and Bṛhadāraṇyaka
|
|
|
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Atharva
|
Two recension
|
||
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Paippalada
|
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New Upanishads
There is no fixed list of the Upanishads as newer ones have continued to be composed.[26] On many occasions, when older Upanishads have not suited the founders of new sects, they have composed new ones of their own.[27] 1908 marked the discovery of four new Upanishads, named Bashkala, Chhagaleya, Arsheya and Saunaka, by Friedrich Otto Schrader,[28] who attributed them to the first prose period of the Upanishads.[29] The text of three, the Chhagaleya, Arsheya and Saunaka, was reportedly corrupt and neglected but possibly re-constructable with the help of their Perso-Latin translations. Texts called "Upanishads" continued to appear up to the end of British rule in 1947.The main Shakta Upanishads mostly discuss doctrinal and interpretative differences between the two principal sects of a major Tantric form of Shaktism called Shri Vidya upasana. The many extant lists of authentic Shakta Upaniṣads vary, reflecting the sect of their compilers, so that they yield no evidence of their "location" in Tantric tradition, impeding correct interpretation. The Tantra content of these texts also weaken its identity as an Upaniṣad for non-Tantrikas and therefore, its status as shruti and thus its authority.[30]
The text composed by Vaishnava saint Namalvar (Satkopa) is also known as the Dravidopanisatsangati
Philosophy
The Brihadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the most important of the mukhya Upanishads. They represent two main schools of thought within the Upanishads. The Brihadaranyaka deals with acosmic or nis-prapancha, whereas the Chandogya deals with the cosmic or sa-prapancha.[1] Between the two, the Brihadaranyaka is considered more original.[37]
The Upanishads also contain the first and most definitive explications of the divine syllable Aum, the cosmic vibration that underlies all existence. The mantra Aum Shānti Shānti Shānti, translated as "the soundless sound, peace, peace, peace", is often found in the Upanishads. The path of bhakti or "Devotion to God" is foreshadowed in Upanishadic literature, and was later realized by texts such as the Bhagavad Gita.[38]
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Some of the Mahāvākyas
(Great Sayings) from the Upanishads
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||
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Sanskrit quote
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English meaning
|
Upanishad
|
|
Prajñānam brahma
|
"Consciousness
is Brahman"
|
|
|
Aham brahmāsmi
|
"I am
Brahman"
|
Brihadaranyaka[40]
|
|
Tat tvam asi
|
"That Thou
art"
|
Chandogya[41]
|
|
Ayamātmā brahmā
|
"This Atman is
Brahman"
|
|
Metaphysics
The three main approaches in arriving at the solution to the problem of the Ultimate Reality have traditionally been the theological, the cosmological and the psychological approaches.[44] The cosmological approach involves looking outward, to the world; the psychological approach meaning looking inside or to the Self; and the theological approach is looking upward or to God. Descartes takes the first and starts with the argument that the Self is the primary reality, self-consciousness the primary fact of existence, and introspection the start of the real philosophical process.[45] According to him, we can arrive at the conception of God only through the Self because it is God who is the cause of the Self and thus, we should regard God as more perfect than the Self. Spinoza on the other hand, believed that God is the be-all and the end-all of all things, the alpha and the omega of existence. From God philosophy starts, and in God philosophy ends. The manner of approach of the Upanishadic philosophers to the problem of ultimate reality was neither the Cartesian nor Spinozistic. The Upanishadic philosophers regarded the Self as the ultimate existence and subordinated the world and God to the Self. The Self to them, is more real than either the world or God. It is only ultimately that they identify the Self with God, and thus bridge over the gulf that exists between the theological and psychological approaches to reality. They take the cosmological approach to start with, but they find that this cannot give them the solution of the ultimate reality. So, Upanishadic thinkers go back and start over by taking the psychological approach and here again, they cannot find the solution to the ultimate reality. They therefore perform yet another experiment by taking the theological approach. They find that this too is lacking in finding the solution. They give yet another try to the psychological approach, and come up with the solution to the problem of the ultimate reality. Thus, the Upanishadic thinkers follow a cosmo-theo-psychological approach.[45] A study of the mukhya Upanishads shows that the Upanishadic thinkers progressively build on each other's ideas. They go back and forth and refute improbable approaches before arriving at the solution of the ultimate reality.[46]Schools of Vedanta
- The one in which the non-dual Brahman-Atman is the all inclusive ground of the universe and
- The one in which all reality in the universe is but an illusion
Advaita is considered the most influential sub-school of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy,[51] though whether it represents the mainstream Hindu position has been debated.[52] Gaudapada was the first person to expound the basic principles of the Advaita philosophy in a commentary on the apparently conflicting statements of the Upanishads.[53] Advaita literally means non-duality, and it is a monistic system of thought.[51] It deals with the non-dual nature of Brahman and Atman. The Advaita school is said to have been consolidated by Shankara. He was a pupil of Gaudapada's pupil. Radhakrishnan believed that Shankara's views of Advaita are straightforward developments of the Upanishads and the Brahmasutra and he offered no innovations to these,[54] while other scholars found sharp differences between Shankara's writings and the Brahmasutra,[55][56] and that there are many ideas in the Upanishads at odds with those of Shankara.[57] Gaudapada lived in a time when Buddhism was widely prevalent in India, and he was at times conscious of the similarity between his system to some phases of Buddhist thought.[53] His main work is infused with philosophical terminology of Buddhism, and uses Buddhist arguments and analogies.[58] Towards the end of his commentary on the topic, he clearly said, "This was not spoken by Buddha". Although there are a wide variety of philosophical positions propounded in the Upanishads, commentators since Adi Shankara have usually followed him in seeing idealist monism as the dominant force.[note 5][note 6][note 7][note 8][note 9]
The Dvaita school was founded by Madhvacharya. Born in 1138 near Udipi,[63] Dvaita is regarded as the best philosophic exposition of theism.[64] Sharma points out that Dvaita, a term commonly used to designate Madhava's system of philosophy, translates as "dualism" in English. The Western understanding of dualism equates to two independent and mutually irreducible substances. The Indian equivalent of that definition would be Samkya Dvaita.[65] Madhva's Dvaita differs from the Western definition of dualism in that while he agrees to two mutually irreducible substances that constitute reality, he regards only one – God, as being independent.[65]
The third school of Vedanta is the Vishishtadvaita, which was founded by Ramanuja. Traditional dates of his birth and death are given as 1017 and 1137, though a shorter life span somewhere between these two dates has been suggested. Modern scholars conclude that on the whole, Ramanuja's theistic views may be closer to those of the Upanishads than are Shankara's, and Ramanuja's interpretations are in fact representative of the general trend of Hindu thought. Ramanuja strenuously refuted Shankara's works.[52] Visistadvaita is a synthetic philosophy of love that tries to reconcile the extremes of the other two monistic and theistic systems of vedanta.[64] It is called Sri-Vaisanavism in its religious aspect. Chari claims that has been misunderstood by its followers as well as its critics. Many, including leading modern proponents of this system, forget that jiva is a substance as well as an attribute and call this system "qualified non-dualism" or the adjectival monism. While the Dvaita insists on the difference between the Brahman and the Jiva, Visistadvaita states that God is their inner-Self as well as transcendent.[64]
Development
Number and Authorship
New Upanishads were still composed in the medieval and early modern period: discoveries of newer Upanishads were being reported as late as 1926.[8] One, the Muktikā Upanishad, predates 1656[66] and contains a list of 108 canonical Upanishads,[67] including itself as the last. However, several texts under the title of "Upanishads" originated right up to the first half of the 20th century, some of which did not deal with subjects of Vedic philosophy.[68] The newer Upanishads are known to be imitations of the mukhya Upanishads.Dara Shikoh, son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, translated 50 Upanishads into Persian in 1657. The first written English translation came in 1805 from Colebrooke,[69] who was aware of 170 Upanishads. Sadhale's catalog from 1985, the Upaniṣad-vākya-mahā-kośa lists 223 Upanishads.[70]
The Upanishads have been attributed to several authors: Yajnavalkya and Uddalaka Aruni feature prominently in the early Upanishads.[71] Other important writers include Shvetaketu, Shandilya, Aitareya, Pippalada and Sanatkumara. Important women discussants include Yajnavalkya's wife Maitreyi, and Gargi.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan considers authorship claims in the text to be unreliable, believing the supposed authors to be fictional characters. An example is Shvetaketu from Chāndogya Upaniṣad for whom there are no sources or books which mention him nor any other works attributed to him.[43]
Chronology and geography
Scholars disagree about the exact dates of the composition of the Upanishads. Different researchers have provided different dates for the Vedic and Upanashic eras. Some authors believe the oldest of these, the Brihadaranyaka, Jaiminiya Upanisadbrahmana and the Chandogya Upanishads, were composed during the pre-Buddhist era of India,[6][7][note 10] while the Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kausitaki, which show Buddhist influence, must have been composed after the 5th century BCE.[7] The remainder of the mukhya Upanishads are dated to the last few centuries BCE.[7]
Ranade criticizes
Deussen for assuming that the oldest Upanishads were written in prose, followed
by those that were written in verse and the last few again in prose. He
proposes a separate chronology based on a battery of six tests.[74]
The tables below summarize some of the prominent work
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