Mudra
A mudrā (English: /muːˈdrɑː/ (
listen); Sanskrit:
"seal", "mark", or "gesture"; Tibetan. chakgya) is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism
and Buddhism.[1] While some
mudrās involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers.[2] A mudrā is a
spiritual gesture and an energetic seal of authenticity employed in the iconography
and spiritual practice of Indian religions
and traditions of Dharma
and Taoism.One hundred and eight mudras are used in regular Tantric rituals.[3]
In yoga, mudrās are used in conjunction with pranayama (yogic breathing exercises), generally while seated in Padmasana, Sukhasana or Vajrasana pose, to stimulate different parts of the body involved with breathing and to affect the flow of prana in the body.
A brain research paper published in the National Academy of Sciences in November 2009, demonstrated that hand gestures stimulate the same regions of the brain as language.
Iconography
Mudrā is used in the iconography of Hindu and Buddhist art of the Indian subcontinent and described in the scriptures, such as Nātyaśāstra, which lists 24 asaṁyuta ("separated", meaning "one-hand") and 13 saṁyuta ("joined", meaning "two-hand") mudrās. Mudrā positions are usually formed by both the hand and the fingers. Along with āsanas ("seated postures"), they are employed statically in the meditation and dynamically in Nāṭya practice of Hinduism. Each mudrā has a specific effect on the practitioner. Common hand gestures are to be seen in both Hindu and Buddhist iconography. In some regions, for example Thailand and Laos, these are different from each other, but related iconographic conventions are used.According to Jamgon Kongtrul in his commentary on the Hevajra Tantra, the symbolic bone ornaments (Skt: aṣṭhiamudrā; Tib: rus pa'i rgyanl phyag rgya) are also known as "mudra" or "seals".[5]
Indian classical dance
In Indian classical dance the term "Hasta Mudra" (hasta is Sanskrit for hand) is used. The Natya Shastra describes 24 mudras, while the Abhinaya Darpana gives 28.[8] In all the forms of Indian classical dance the mudras are similar, though the names and uses vary. There are 28 (or 32) root mudras in Bharatanatyam, 24 in Kathakali and 20 in Odissi. These root mudras are combined in different ways, like one hand, two hands, arm movements, body and facial expressions. In Kathakali, which has the greatest number of combinations, the vocabulary adds up to circa 900. Sanyukta mudras are mudras that use both hands, and asanyukta mudras are mudras that use only one hand words.[9]Yogic mudrās
The main source of Mudra are Gherandya Samhita, Hathyoga Pradipika. Gherandya Samhita is written by Sage Gherandya and Hathyoga Pradipika is written by Swami Pt. Swatmaram from Nath Tradition. Thenafter was more work on those topic through Swami Satyanand Saraswati. He was the founder of Bihar School of Yoga. Mudrās are a fundamental form of yoga practice; the most famous book published by the Bihar School of Yoga is called Asana, Pranayama, Mudrā, Bandha.Basic mudrā: Chin Mudrā
Thumb and forefinger on each of both hands join as a zero. The rest of the fingers are extended, with the middle finger touching the non-folded part of the forefinger. The hands are placed palms-down on the thighs while sitting in Vajrasana. This mudrā activates the diaphragm, making for deep "stomach-breathing", as the diaphragm pushes out the internal organs when it descends towards the pelvis on inhalation. Slow rhythmic breathing in a 5-2-4-2 rhythm (5 being the exhalation, and 4 is the inhalation) makes prana flow in the pelvis and in the legs.Basic mudrā: Chinmaya Mudrā
Thumb and forefinger are the same as Chin Mudrā. The rest of the fingers are folded into a fist. The non-folded part of the forefinger and the middle finger should still be touching. Like in Chin Mudrā, the hands are placed palms-down on the thighs while sitting in Vajrasana. This mudrā activates the ribs, making them expand sideways on inhalation. Slow rhythmic breathing in a 5-2-4-2 rhythm (5 being the exhalation, and 4 is the inhalation) makes prana flow in the torso and in the throat.Basic mudrā: Adi Mudrā
Thumb is folded into the palm, touching the base of the small finger. The rest of the fingers are folded over the thumb, to create a fist. Like in Chin Mudrā, the hands are placed palms-down on the thighs while sitting in Vajrasana. This mudrā activates the pectoral muscles, making the chest expand forward on inhalation. Slow rhythmic breathing in a 5-2-4-2 rhythm (5 being the exhalation, and 4 is the inhalation) makes prana flow in the throat and in the head.Basic compact mudrā: Brahma Mudrā
Palms are in Adi Mudrā, but the inside of the palms face upwards and are located at the level of the navel, with the left and right knuckles and first finger joints touching. This is done while sitting in Vajrasana. Breathing becomes full: in inhalation, the diaphragm descends, the ribs then expand, and then the pectoral muscles move forward. Exhalation works in the same order, which creates a "wave" or ripple effect. Slow rhythmic breathing in a 5-2-4-2 rhythm (5 being the exhalation, and 4 is the inhalation) makes prana flow in the entire body.Advanced compact mudrā: Prana Mudrā
A complicated Mudrā combining hand gestures, synchronized movement from gesture to gesture within the breath cycle, and meditation. The mudrā is practiced sitting in Siddhasana. Even a single breath cycle of this Mudrā can significantly stimulate the body. It is described in the book, Theories of the Chakras, by Hiroshi MotoyamaPratyahara
Pratyahara (Devanāgarī Tibetan , Wylie so sor sdud pa) or the 'withdrawal of the senses' is the fifth element among the Eight stages of Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga,[1] as mentioned in his classical work, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali composed in the 2nd century BCE.[2] It is also the first stage of the six-branch yoga (ṣaḍaṅgayoga) of the Buddhist Kālacakra tantra, where it refers to the withdrawal of the five senses from external objects to be replaced by the mentally created senses of an enlightened deity. This phase is roughly analogous to the physical isolation (kāyaviveka, Tib. lus bden) phase of Guhyasamāja tantra.For Patanjali, it is a bridge between the bahiranga (external) aspects of yoga namely, yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, and the antaranga (internal) yoga. Having actualized the pratyahara stage, a practitioner is able to effectively engage into the practice of Samyama. At the stage of pratyahara, the consciousness of the individual is internalized in order that the sensations from the senses of taste, touch, sight, hearing and smell don't reach their respective centers in the brain and takes the sadhaka (practitioner) to next stages of Yoga, namely Dharana (concentration) and Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (mystical absorption), being the aim of all Yogic practices.
Etymology
Pratyahara is derived from two Sanskrit words: prati and ahara, with ahara meaning food, or anything taken into ourselves, and prati, a preposition meaning away or against. Together they mean "weaning away from ahara", or simply ingestion.[4]Types of Pratyahara
Withdrawal of Senses or Indriya Pratyahara
This involves withdrawal of senses, or sensory inputs into our physical being, coming from our five senses, namely organs creating a sensory overload, and hence hinders collection of the mind, as in Dharana, the next stage of Yoga [5]Withdrawal of Prana or Prana Pratyahara
Control of our senses requires mastery over the flow of prana, as that is what drives the senses. To stop the scattering of valuable vital energy of the body or prana, we need to seek control over its flow, and harmonize it. This is done through various practices including bringing the entire focus to a single point in the body.[5]These two lead to the subsequent two types of pratyahara, the Control of Action or 'Karma pratyahara', which entails not just control of motor organs, but also right action or work, and Karma Yoga, surrender of every action to the divine and performing it as an act of service. This leads to the final form of pratyahara - the Withdrawal of Mind or 'Mano pratyahara', which is practiced by consciously withdrawing attention from anything that is unwholesome, and distracting for the mind such as by withdrawing attention from the senses, and directing it inwards [6]
Practices in Pratyahara
One of the most common practices for Pratyahara is Pranayama, wherein we automatically withdraw from the external and bring our focus inwards towards our breath, as connection with the external senses and stimuli are all severed gradually.[7]Apart from Pranayama, another method that is used to aid in the development of Pratyahara is to concentrate on the point between the eyebrows. This location is known as Ajna Chakra or the third eye.
Another common technique for inducing Pratyahara is to first reduce physical stimuli, then concentrate on one sense, such as hearing. The mind has a natural tendency to roam between the sensory inputs. In this situation, as there are no longer any other significant sensory inputs, when the mind gets tired of hearing, it is forced to turn inward.
At the advanced levels, the currents which pulsate through the nerves and even the involuntary muscles are turned off by the practitioner. This may also be accomplished through Pranayama or breath-control
Pranayama
Prāṇāyāma (Sanskrit: prāṇāyāma) is a Sanskrit word meaning "extension of the prāṇa or breath" or more accurately, "extension of the life force". The word is composed of two Sanskrit words, Prāṇa, life force, or vital energy, particularly, the breath, and "ayāma", to extend or draw out. (Not 'restrain, or control' as is often incorrectly translated from 'yama' instead of 'ayāma')Etymology
Prāṇāyāma (Devanagari: प्राणायाम, prāṇāyāma) is a Sanskrit compound.V. S. Apte provides fourteen different meanings for the word prāṇa (Devanagari: प्राण, prāṇa) including these:[1]
- Breath, respiration
- The breath of life, vital air, principle of life (usually plural in this sense, there being five such vital airs generally assumed, but three, six, seven, nine, and even ten are also spoken of)[2]
- Energy, vigor
- The spirit or soul
Monier-Williams defines the compound prāṇāyāma as "(m., also pl.) N. of the three 'breath-exercises' performed during Saṃdhyā (See pūraka, recaka, kumbhaka".[6] This technical definition refers to a particular system of breath control with three processes as explained by Bhattacharyya: pūraka (to take the breath inside), kumbhaka (to retain it), and recaka (to discharge it).[7] There are also other processes of prāṇāyāma in addition to this three-step model.[7]
Macdonell gives the etymology as prāṇa + āyāma and defines it as "m. suspension of breath (sts. pl.)".[8]
Apte's definition of āyāmaḥ derives it from ā + yām and provides several variant meanings for it when used in compounds. The first three meanings have to do with "length", "expansion, extension", and "stretching, extending", but in the specific case of use in the compound prāṇāyāma he defines āyāmaḥ as meaning "restrain, control, stopping".[9]
An alternative etymology for the compound is cited by Ramamurti Mishra, who says that:
Expansion of individual
energy into cosmic energy is called prāṇāyāma (prāṇa, energy + ayām,
expansion).
—[10]
Hatha and Raja Yoga Varieties
Some scholars distinguish between hatha and rāja yoga varieties of prāṇāyāma, with the former variety usually prescribed for the beginner. According to Taimni, hatha yogic prāṇāyāma involves manipulation of pranic currents through breath regulation for bringing about the control of chitta-vrittis and changes in consciousness, whereas rāja yogic prāṇāyāma involves the control of chitta-vrittis by consciousness directly through the will of the mind.[11] Students qualified to practice prāṇāyāma are therefore always initiated first in the techniques of hatha prāṇāyāma.[12]Bhagavad Gītā
Prāṇāyāma is mentioned in verse 4.29 of the Bhagavad Gītā.[13]According to Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is, prāṇāyāma is translated to "trance induced by stopping all breathing", also being made from the two separate Sanskrit words, prāṇa and āyāma.
‘Prana is a subtle invisible force. It is the life-force that pervades the body. It is the factor that connects the body and the mind, because it is connected on one side with the body and on the other side with the mind. It is the connecting link between the body and the mind. The body and the mind have no direct connection. They are connected through Prana only.’
‘Yoga primarily works with the energy in the body through the science of pranayama or energy-control. Prana also means ‘breath.’ Yoga teaches how to still the mind through breath-control and attain higher states of awareness. The higher teachings of yoga take one beyond techniques and show the yogi or yoga practitioner how to direct his concentration in such a way as not only to harmonize human with divine consciousness, but to merge his consciousness in the Infinite.’
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
|
Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali[17]
|
||
|
Pada (Chapter)
|
English meaning
|
Sutras
|
|
Samadhi Pada
|
On being absorbed in
spirit
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51
|
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Sadhana Pada
|
On being immersed in
spirit
|
55
|
|
Vibhuti Pada
|
On supernatural
abilities and gifts
|
56
|
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Kaivalya Pada
|
On absolute freedom
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34
|
Many yoga teachers advise that pranayama should be part of an overall practice that includes the other limbs of Patanjali's Raja Yoga teachings, especially Yama, Niyama, and Asana.[22]
Medical
Several researchers have reported that pranayama techniques are beneficial in treating a range of stress-related disorders,[23] improving autonomic functions,[24] relieving symptoms of asthma[25] (though a different study did not find any improvement[26]) and reducing signs of oxidative stress.[27][28] Practitioners report that the practice of pranayama develops a steady mind, strong will-power, and sound judgement,[22] and also claim that sustained pranayama practice extends life and enhances perception.[29]Alternate nostril breathing (ANB) prāṇāyāma, also known as Nadisuddhi prāṇāyāma, is one of the beneficial prāṇāyāma for cardiopulmonary functions. Regular practice of ANB (Nadisuddhi) increases parasympathetic activity and lowers systolic blood pressure as well as respiratory rate.[30]
Cautions
Many yoga teachers recommend that Prāṇāyāma techniques be practiced with care, and that advanced prāṇāyāma techniques should be practiced under the guidance of a teacher. For example, people with high blood pressure must perform it cautiously or may even have to avoid it. These cautions are also made in traditional Hindu literature. Pregnant women may have to forgo pranayama.Dhyana in Hinduism
According to the Hindu Yoga Sutra, written by Patanjali, dhyana (meditation) is one of the eight limbs of Yoga, (the other seven being Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, and Samādhi). According to Patanjali, the founder of yoga philosophy, the final stage of meditation in dhyāna is considered to be jhāna. At this stage of meditation, one does not see it as a meditational practice, but instead merges with the idea and thought. One cannot reach a higher stage of consciousness without jhāna.[1]The entire Eight Limbs of the Patanjali system are also sometimes referred to as Dhyana, or the meditative path, although strictly speaking, only the last four limbs constitute meditation Pratyahara, Dhyana, Dharana, and Samādhi. The preceding steps are only to prepare the body and mind for meditation.
In the Ashtanga ("eight limbs") Yoga of Patanjali, the stage of meditation preceding dhyāna is called dharana. In Dhyana, the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that s/he is meditating) but is only aware that s/he exists (consciousness of being), and aware of the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes one with the object of meditation. He/she is then able to maintain this oneness for 144 inhalations and expiration.
Dhyana, practiced together with Dharana and Samādhi constitutes the Samyama.
The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Sri Krishna in chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita, wherein He explains the many different Yoga systems to His friend and disciple, Arjuna. In fact, Lord Shankar described 108 different ways to do Dhyana to Mata Parvati.
In Hinduism, dhyāna is considered to be an instrument to gain self knowledge, separating māyā from reality to help attain the ultimate goal of mokṣa. Depictions of Hindu yogis performing dhyāna are found in ancient texts and in statues and frescoes of ancient Indian temples.
The Bhagavad Gītā, thought to have been written some time between 400 and 100 BC, talks of four branches of yoga:
- Karma Yoga: The yoga of action in the world
- Jnāna yoga: The yoga of Wisdom and intellectual endeavor
- Bhakti Yoga: The yoga of devotion to God
- Dhyāna Yoga: The yoga of meditation
For example, in the Jangama Dhyāna technique, the meditator concentrates the mind and sight between the eyebrows. According to Patañjali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration (dhāraṇā: Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to become introverted in meditation (dhyāna: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the technique, the mind concentrated between the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. Eventually, the meditator experiences only the consciousness of existence and achieves self realization. Swami Vivekananda describes the process in the following way:
When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power of flowing in an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called dhyana. When one has so intensified the power of dhyana as to be able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on the internal part, the meaning, that state is called Samadhi.
Samadhi
Samādhi (Sanskrit: समाधि) in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools is a higher level of concentrated meditation, or dhyāna. In the yoga tradition, it is the eighth and final limb identified in the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali.
Prabhupada
samadhi
It has been described as a non-dualistic state
of consciousness in which the consciousness of the experiencing subject becomes
one with the experienced object,[1] and in
which the mind becomes still, one-pointed or concentrated[2] while the
person remains conscious. In Buddhism, it can also refer to an abiding in which
mind becomes very still but does not merge with the object of attention, and is
thus able to observe and gain insight into the changing flow of experience.[3]In Hinduism, samādhi can also refer to videha mukti or the complete absorption of the individual consciousness in the self at the time of death - usually referred to as mahasamādhi
Nomenclature, orthography and etymology
Samadhi (समाधि samādhi, Hindi pronunciation: [səˈmaːd̪ʱi]) is the state of consciousness induced by complete meditation. The term's etymology involves "sam" (together or integrated), "ā" (towards), and "dhā" (to get, to hold). Thus the result might be seen to be "to acquire integration or wholeness, or truth" (samāpatti). Another possible etymological analysis of "samādhi" is "samā" (even) and "dhi" (intellect), a state of total equilibrium ("samā") of a detached intellect ("dhi").Rhys Davis[4] holds that the first attested usage of the term samādhi in Sanskrit literature was in the Maitri Upanishad.[5]
Hinduism
Samādhi is the main subject of the first part of the Yoga Sūtras called Samādhi-pada. Vyāsa, a major figure in Hinduism and one of the traditional authors of the Mahābharata, says in his commentary on verse 1.1 of the Yoga Sūtras that "yoga is samādhi."[6] This is generally interpreted to mean that samādhi is a state of complete control (samadhana) over the functions and distractions of consciousness.Samādhi is described in different ways within Hinduism such as the state of being aware of one’s existence without thinking, in a state of undifferentiated “beingness" or as an altered state of consciousness that is characterized by bliss (ānanda) and joy (sukha). Nisargadatta Maharaj describes the state in the following manner:
When you say you sit
for meditation, the first thing to be done is understand that it is not this
body identification that is sitting for meditation, but this knowledge ‘I am’,
this consciousness, which is sitting in meditation and is meditating on itself.
When this is finally understood, then it becomes easy. When this consciousness,
this conscious presence, merges in itself, the state of ‘Samadhi’ ensues. It is
the conceptual feeling that I exist that disappears and merges into the
beingness itself. So this conscious presence also gets merged into that
knowledge, that beingness – that is ‘Samadhi’.
—[7]
The initial experience of it is enlightenment
and it is the beginning of the process of meditating to attain self-realization
(tapas). "There is a difference between the enlightenment of samādhi
and self-realization. When a person achieves enlightenment, that person starts
doing tapas to realize the self."[8]According to Patañjali[9] samādhi has three different categories:
- Savikalpa - This is an interface of trans meditation[clarification needed] and higher awareness state, asamprajñata. The state is so named because mind retains its consciousness, which is why in savikalpa samādhi one can experience guessing (vitarka), thought (vicāra), bliss (ānanda) and self-awareness (asmita).[9] In Sanskrit, "kalpa" means "imagination". Vikalpa (an etymological derivation of which could be ) connotes imagination. Patañjali in the Yoga Sūtras defines "vikalpa" saying: "Sa" is a prefix which means "with". So "savikalpa" means "with vikalpa" or "with imagination". Ramana Maharshi defines "savikalpa samādhi" as, "holding on to reality with effort".[10]
- Asamprajñata is a step forward from savikalpa. According to Patañjali,[9] asamprajñata is a higher awareness state with absence of gross awareness.[11]
- Nirvikalpa or sanjeevan - This is the highest transcendent state of consciousness. In this state there is no longer mind, duality, a subject-object relationship or experience.[12] Upon entering nirvikalpa samādhi, the differences we saw before have faded and we can see everything as one. In this condition nothing but pure awareness remains and nothing detracts from wholeness and perfection.
Samādhi is the only stable unchanging reality; all else is ever-changing and does not bring everlasting peace or happiness.
Staying in nirvikalpa samādhi is effortless but even from this condition one must eventually return to ego-consciousness. Otherwise this highest level of samādhi leads to nirvāṇa, which means total unity, the logical end of individual identity and also death of the body. However, it is entirely possible to stay in nirvikalpa samādhi and yet be fully functional in this world. This condition is known as sahājā nirvikalpa samādhi or sahājā samādhi. According to Ramana Maharshi, "Remaining in the primal, pure natural state without effort is sahaja nirvikalpa samadhi".[10]
Bhakti
The Vaishnava Bhakti Schools of Yoga define samādhi as "complete absorption into the object of one's love (Krishna)." Rather than thinking of "nothing," true samādhi is said to be achieved only when one has pure, unmotivated love of God. Thus samādhi can be entered into through meditation on the personal form of God. Even while performing daily activities a practitioner can strive for full samādhi.
"Anyone
who is thinking of Krishna always within himself, he is first-class yogi."
If you want perfection in yoga system, don't be satisfied only by practicing a
course of asana. You have to go further. Actually, the perfection of yoga
system means when you are in samadhi, always thinking of the Visnu form of the
Lord within your heart, without being disturbed... Controlling all the senses
and the mind. You have to control the mind, control the senses, and concentrate
everything on the form of Vishnu.
That is called perfection of yoga" - A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada[14]
"Meditation
means to absorb your mind in the Supreme Personality of Godhead. That is
meditation, real meditation. In all the standard scriptures and in yoga
practice formula, the whole aim is to concentrate one's mind in the Supreme
Personality of Godhead. That is called samadhi, samadhi, ecstasy. So that
ecstasy is immediately brought by this chanting process. You begin chanting and hear
for the few seconds or few minutes: you immediately become on the platform of
ecstasy." - A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada[15]
Bhava Samadhi is a state of ecstatic consciousness that can sometimes
be a seemingly spontaneous experience, but is recognized generally to be the
culmination of long periods of devotional practices.[16]
Shivabalayogi explained that bhava samādhi awakens spiritual awareness,
brings about healing, and deepens meditation.[17]bhava
samadhi" denotes an advanced spiritual state in which the emotions of
the mind are channelled into one-pointed concentration and the practitioner
experiences devotional ecstasy. Bhava samadhi
has been experienced by notable figures in Indian spiritual history, including
Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and some of his
disciples, Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu and his chief disciple Nityananda, Mirabai
and numerous saints in the bhakti
tradition.Leaving the body
Yogis are said to attain the final liberation or videha mukti after leaving their bodies at the time of death. It is at this time that the soul knows a complete and unbroken union with the divine, and, being free from the limitations of the body, merges effortlessly into the transcendent Self. Mahāsamādhi (literally great samādhi) is a term often used for this final absorption into the Self at death.Mausoleum
Samādhi mandir is also the Hindi name for a temple commemorating the dead (similar to a mausoleum), which may or may not contain the body of the deceased. Samādhi sites are often built in this way to honour people regarded as saints or gurus in Hindu religious traditions, wherein such souls are said to have passed into mahā-samādhi, (or were already in) samādhi at the time of death.I.K. Taimni
I. K. Taimni, in The Science of Yoga,[19] Taimni's commentary on Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, provides a lucid and precise understanding of samadhi. In simple terms, Taimni defines samadhi as "knowing by becoming". Samadhi, as pointed out above, is the eighth arm of Patanjali's Ashtanga (eight limbed) yoga. The last three of the eight limbs are called Antaranga, or Internal yoga, meaning they occur solely in the mind of the yogin. The three limbs are: dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Together, the three are collectively called samyama. Dharana, dhyana and samadhi are sometimes translated as concentration, contemplation, and meditation, respectively. These translations do not shed any light on the nature of dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Dharana, dhyana and samadhi are altered states of consciousness and have no direct counterpart in normal waking experience, according to Taimni's explanation of them.According to Taimni, dharana, dhyana and samadhi form a graded series.
Dharana.
In dharana, the mind learns to focus on a single object of thought. The object
of focus is called a pratyaya. In dharana, the yogi learns to prevent other
thoughts from intruding on focusing awareness on the pratyaya.
Dhyana.
Over time and with practice, the yogin learns to sustain awareness of only the
pratyaya, thereby dharana transforms into dhyana. In dhyana, the yogin comes to
realize the triplicity of perceiver (the yogin), perceived (the pratyaya) and
the act of perceiving. The new element added to the practice of dhyana, that
distinguish it from dharana is the yogin learns to minimize the perceiver
element of this triplicity. In this fashion, dhyana is the gradual minimization
of the perceiver, or the fusion of the observer with the observed (the
pratyaya).
Samadhi.
When the yogin can: (1) sustain focus on the pratyaya for an extended period of
time, and (2) minimize his or her self-consciousness during the practice, then
dhyana transforms into samadhi. In this fashion then, the yogin becomes fused
with the pratyaya. Patnajali compares this to placing a transparent jewel on a
colored surface: the jewel takes on the color of the surface. Similarly, in
samadhi, the consciousness of the yogin fuses with the object of thought, the
pratyaya. The pratyaya is like the colored surface, and the yogin's
consciousness is like the transparent jewel.
Samadhi can be compared to normal thought as a
laser beam can be compared to normal light. Normal light is diffuse. A laser
beam is highly concentrated light. The laser beam contains power that normal
light does not. Similarly, samadhi is the mind in its most concentrated state.
The mind in samadhi possess power than a normal mind does not. This power is
used by the yogin to reveal the essence of the pratyaya. This essence is called
the artha of the pratyaya. The release of the artha of the pratyaya is similar
to cracking open the shell of a seed to discover the essential elements of the
seed, the genetic material, protected by the shell.Once perfected, samadhi is the main tool used by a yogin to penetrate into the deeper layers of consciousness and seek the center of the yogin's consciousness. Upon finding this center, the final act is using a variant form of samadhi, called dharma mega samadhi, to penetrate the center of consciousness and emerge through this center into Kaivalya. Kaivalya is the term used by Patanjali to designate the state of Absolute consciousness free from all fetters and limitations.
Thus it can be seen that, according to Taimni's interpretation of the Yoga Sutras, samadhi is the main tool the yogin uses to achieve the end goal of yoga, the joining of the individual self with the Universal Absolute
Hatha Yoga Pradipika
The Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā (Sanskrit: haṭhayōgapradīpikā, हठयोगप्रदीपिका) is a classic Sanskrit manual on hatha yoga, written by Svāmi Svātmārāma, a disciple of Swami Gorakhnath. Said to be the oldest surviving text on the hatha yoga, it is one of the three classic texts of hatha yoga, the other two being the Gheranda Samhita and the Shiva Samhita. A fourth major text, written at a later date by Srinivasabhatta Mahayogaindra, is the Hatharatnavali.[1]Its titles in the A.C. Woolner collection are described by the Library of the University of Vienna as Haṭhayogapradīpikā, Haṭhapradīpikā, Haṭhapradī, Hath-Pradipika.(source)
The text was written in 15th century CE. The work is derived from older Sanskrit texts and Swami Svatmarama's own yogic experiences. Many modern English translations of the text are available.
The book consists four Upadeśas (chapters) which include information about asanas, pranayama, chakras, kundalini, bandhas, kriyas, shakti, nadis and mudras among other topics. It runs in the line of Hindu yoga (to distinguish from Buddhist and Jain yoga) and is dedicated to Śrī (Lord) ādi nāthā (Adinatha), a name for Lord Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction and renewal), who is believed to have imparted the secret of hatha yoga to his divine consort Parvati.
Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga (Sanskrit: हठयोग haṭhayoga, IPA: [ɦəʈʰəˈjoːɡə]), also called hatha vidya ), is a system of yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, a Hindu sage of 15th century India, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika.The Sanskrit term haṭha refers to the use of persistence or force, and haṭhayoga is translated by the Monier-Williams dictionary as "a kind of forced Yoga or abstract meditation (forcing the mind to withdraw from external objects; treated of in the Haṭha‐pradīpikā by Svātmārāma and performed with much self‐torture, such as standing on one leg, holding up the arms, inhaling smoke with the head inverted &c.)." [1]
Swatmarama introduces his system as preparatory stage of physical purification that the body practices for higher meditation or Yoga. It is based on asanas and pranayama (breathing techniques, also known as shatkarma). As opposed to the traditional practice, physical focus on Yoga became popular in the west beginning in the second half of the 20th century, and is often referred to simply as "Hatha Yoga" in the context of health and physical exercise.
Origins
The most comprehensive text of hatha yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Yogi Swatmarama. This work is nonetheless derived from older Sanskrit texts on yoga besides Yogi Swatmarama's own yogic experiences. It includes information about shatkarma (purification), asana, pranayama (subtle energy control), chakras (centers of energy), kundalini (instinct), bandhas (muscle force), kriyas (techniques; manifestations of kundalini), shakti (sacred force), nadis (channels), and mudras (symbolic gestures) among other topics.Traditionally, Lord Shiva is credited with propounding hatha yoga. It is said that on a lonely island, assuming nobody else would hear him, he gave the knowledge of hatha yoga to Goddess Parvati, but a fish heard the entire discourse, remaining still throughout. Lord Shiva took mercy on the fish (Matsya) and made him a siddha, who came to be known as Matsyendranaatha. Matsyendranaatha taught hatha yoga to Chaurangi, a limbless man who was given hands and feet by Matsyendranaatha just by looking at him. Hatha Yoga Pradipika mentions Adi Natha, Matsyendranath, Gorakshanath and many other yogis who became famous hatha yogis.
Many modern schools of hatha yoga derive from the school of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught from 1924 until his death in 1989. Among his students prominent in popularizing yoga in the West were K. Pattabhi Jois, famous for popularizing the vigorous Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga style, B. K. S. Iyengar who emphasizes alignment and the use of props, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T. K. V. Desikachar who developed the Viniyoga style. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Chennai, with the aim of making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.
Another major stream of influence was Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh (1887-1963) and his many disciples including, among others, Swami Vishnu-devananda - founder of International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres; Swami Satyananda - of the Bihar School of Yoga; and Swami Satchidananda - of Integral Yoga.
Siddha Siddhanta Paddhati
The Siddha Siddhanta Paddhati is a very early extant Hatha yoga Sanskrit text attributed to Gorakshanath by the indigenous tradition which contains much content on the avadhuta, as Feuerstein (1991: p.105) relates:
One of the earliest
hatha yoga scriptures, the Siddha Siddhanta Paddhati, contains many
verses that describe the avadhuta. One stanza (VI.20) in particular refers to
his chameleon-like capacity to animate any character or role. At times, it is
said, he behaves like a worldling or even a king, at other times like an
ascetic or naked renunciant.
—[2]
Concept
Traditional hatha yoga is a holistic yogic path, including disciplines, postures (asana), purification procedures (shatkriya), gestures (mudra), breathing (pranayama), and meditation. The hatha yoga predominantly practiced in the West consists of mostly asanas understood as physical exercises. It is also recognized as a stress-reducing practice.Hatha yoga is one of the two branches of yoga that focuses on the physical culture, the other one being raja yoga. Both of these are commonly referred to as sadanga yoga, i.e., yoga of six parts ('sad' meaning six and 'anga' meaning limbs). Svatmarama emphasizes many times in his Hathapradipika text that there is no raja yoga without hatha yoga and no hatha yoga without raja yoga. The main difference is that raja yoga uses asanas mainly to get the body ready for prolonged meditation, and hence focuses more on the meditative asanas: Lotus Posture (padmasana), Accomplished Posture (siddhasana), Easy Posture (sukhasana) and Pelvic Posture (vajrasana). Hatha yoga utilizes not only meditative postures but also cultural postures. Similarly, raja yoga's use of pranayama is also devoid of extensive locks (bandha).
Hatha represents opposing energies: hot and cold (fire and water, following similar concept as yin-yang), male and female, positive and negative. Hatha yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical postures or "asanas", purification practices, controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance and strength and are practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind in preparation for meditation. However if an individual has too much phlegm or fat then purification procedures are a necessity before undertaking pranayama.[citation needed]
Ashtanga is the yoga of Patañjali, the compiler of the Yoga Sutras. It is composed of eight limbs: yama and niyama, which are ethical observations; asana; pranayama, which is breath control; pratyahara, which is sense withdrawal; dharana, which is concentration; dhyana, which is meditation; and samadhi, which is a high state of concentration, mastery of the mind.[3] The eight limbs are more precisely viewed as eight levels of progress, each level providing benefits in and of itself and also laying the foundation for the higher levels. Frequently ashtanga yoga of Patanjali is being confused with raja yoga, Patanjali nowhere in his sutras uses the term raja yoga.
Hatha yoga consists of six limbs focused on attaining samādhi. In this scheme, the six limbs of hatha yoga are defined as asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samādhi. The basic text of hatha yoga is Hathapradipika by Swatmarama, a grand disciple of Sahajananda (from the lineage of Sopana, the younger brother of Dnyaneshwar Maharaj of Alandi near Pune). An important part of hatha practices is awakening of Kundalini. The signs of success in hatha yoga are slenderness of the body, cheerful face, hearing mystical sound, bright eyes, sense of well-being, control over the bindu, increase in gastric fire and purification of the nadis.[citation needed]
Prāṇāyāma
The words prāṇa (life-force) and ayāma (to lengthen or regulate) make up prāṇāyāma. Prāṇāyāma seeks to lengthen, control and regulate the breath. In one variation, the rechak (exhaled air), poorak (inhalation) and kumbhak (retention during normal inhaling and exhaling) are the three parts of the breath that are regulated. Pranayama is practiced to develop mental, physical and spiritual strengthHealth benefits ascribed to yogasana practice
Yoga's combined focus on mindfulness, breathing and physical movements brings health benefits with regular participation. Yoga participants report better sleep, increased energy levels and muscle tone, relief from muscle pain and stiffness, improved circulation and overall better general health. The breathing aspect of yoga can benefit heart rate and blood pressure.[4]Kamba Ramayanam
(Ramavataram)
Kamban wrote this epic with the patronage of Thiruvennai Nallur Sadayappa Vallal, a Pannai kula chieftain . In gratitude to his patron, Kamban references his name once in every 1000 verses.Kamban was also called Kambar.
The epic is quite well known, both in the Tamil literary world and in the Hindu spiritual world, for the colorfulness of its poetry and for its religious value.
Structure
The book is divided into six chapters, called Kandam ) in Tamil.- Bala Kandam (Chapter: Childhood; )
- Ayodhya Kandam (Chapter: Ayodhya; )
- Aranya Kandam (Chapter: Forest; )
- Kishkinta Kandam (Chapter: Kishkintha )
- Sundara Kandam (Chapter: Beautiful; )
- Yutha Kandam (Chapter: War )
Compilation
As with many historic compilations, it was very difficult to discard the interpolations and addendum which have been added over a period of time to the original. This task was taken up a committee of scholars headed by T P Meenakshi Sundaram called the Kamban Kazhagam (Kamban Academy). The compilation published by this committee in 1976 is what is used as the standard today.Literary significance
Kamban's use of Virutham ; Tempo) and Santham (சந்தம்; Tune) in various verses is effective in bringing out the emotion and mood for storytelling. He achieves the Virutham and Santham by effective choice of words.Religious significance
This epic is read by many Hindus during prayers. In some households the entire epic is read once during the Tamil Month of Aadi. It is also read in Hindu Temples and other religious associations. On many occasions, Kambar talks about surrendering to Rama, who is a manifestation of Vishnu himself.The chapter Sundara Kandam is considered quite auspicious and is the most popular. The chapter talks about the hardships faced by the main characters in the epic, their practice of restraint, and their hopes for a better tomorrow
Manusmṛti :
Manusmṛti (written also as Manusmriti or Manusmruti) (Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति), also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is one metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of ancient Vedic Sanatana Dharma, presently called Hinduism.[1] Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, or Dharmic discourse to vedic Rishis, on 'how to lead the life' or 'way of living' by various classes of society. The text presents itself as a discourse given by the sage Manu, to a congregation of seers, or rishis, who beseeched him, after the great floods,[2] in the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', in India, some 10,000 years ago, to tell them on, how to face such calamities in future by organising themselves and lead an organised life with the "guidelines for all the social classes".[3] Vetern sages Manu and Bhrigu gave them a discourse in some 2685 shaloks, compilation of which is called 'Manusmriti'. Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharmaśāstras that followed it.[4] Manusmriti was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, an linguist, English Orientalist and judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta.[5] who had great respect for the bookDate and Place
Different scholars have given a range of timings for creation of this text, from 1500 BCE to 500 AD. However, the basic fact of the time period of existence of flood-figure Manu[disambiguation needed][7][8] and Bhrigu, compariot and contemporary of Manu, who had his Ashram on the bank of 'Vadhusar River' in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta',[9] who were the authors of Manusmriti, is ignored all together, which happens to be the period of great floods,[10] 10,000 years ago, after last ice age having mentions in Persian book Avesta, Indian Sanskrit text Shatapatha Brahmana and now scientific evidence is available on various websites.[2] Floods had ravaged the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', located on the confluence of two huge Vedic rivers Saraswati and Drishadwati, where the Ashrams of Devas were located.[11] The state 'Brahmavarta' is now identified on the borders of North Rajasthan and South Haryana, mainly in and around Shekhawati and Jhunjhunu region of Rajasthan and parts of Haryana in the districts of Mahendragarh and Rewari on the basis of images of paleochannals [12] of these rivers from satellites, geo-morphological studies of the soils, which confirm presence of soil particals of Himalayan rocks in the ares represented by Saraswati river, and mentions of the area in Mahabharat, Rigved, Shatapatha Brahmana, Manusmriti and various Puranas.[13] As per epic 'Mahabharat' Bhrigu Rishi had his Ashram at 'Deepotsak' on 'Vadhusar' river, and his son Chyavana, on Dhosi Hill [14] a tributory of Drishadwati river, in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta'. As per Skanda Purana, Bhrigu Rishi had migrated to 'Bharuch', located on Narmada river later on. Even Archeological findings near Narmada river are dated more than 8500 years old[15] and said to be belonging to post Bhrigu era, confirming that Bhrigu and Manu had existed some 10,000 years ago, and their creation 'Manusmriti' is that old.The identity of place 'Brahmavarta', the Vedic state [16] where, sages Manu and Bhrigu had given the discourse, and Manusmriti was compiled is also confirmed by the fact that the nomenclature used to describe, animals, birds, crops, trees, plants, house utilities, activities of people, geographical conditions etc. in 'Manusmriti' is still in use in the area, and these things exist physically also. Khetri Copper Mines and Dhosi Hill are important landmarks in 'Brahmavarta'. The Saraswati river, which had flown at the time of floods, made the western border of Brahmavarta state,[17] while northern border was formed by Drishadwati river which had flown in along the inner side of Aravali hill from the pot of 'Brahma' called Pushkar lake near Ajmer in Rajasthan. Because of seismic activities in Aravali ranges 7–8000 years ago, Monsoon water from Ajmer district stopped flowing in to Drishadwati and migrated to Chambal RiverChambal river, however water from part of Jaipur, Sikar and Alwar districts in Rajasthan, still flows in the old Drishadwati river, presently known as 'Sahbi river' and finally goes in to Yamuna river near Delhi.[18]
Context
Great floods [7][8] which occurred after rapid melting of Himalayan glaciers at the end of last ice age, and higher rainfalls in Aravalli ranges,[19] were devastating for habitants of Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta' and surrounding areas. Senior Rishis of the area gathered and decided to approach the oldest Saint or Rishi Manu[disambiguation needed], who had escaped the floods and is said to be 400 years old at that time, to advise the conference, from his memory (in Sanskrit and Hindi Smriti) and experiences, on 'how to face such calamities in future and lead a peaceful and organised life'.[20] Thus, the 2685 shaloks discoursed by Manu[disambiguation needed] and Bhrigu to the conference on various aspects came to be known as 'Manusmriti', which some call 'Laws of Manu', while others consider it to be an 'advisory' only. This conference/congregation was also the beginning of organised living by Vedic people or formal launching of Vedic Sanatana Dharma.Though most scholars had previously considered the text a composite put together over a long period of time, Olivelle has recently argued that the complex and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author. However, no details of this eponymous author's life are known, though it is likely that he belonged to a conservative Brahmin caste somewhere in Northern India.[4]
An earlier opinion generally dated composition of the text any time between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[21] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.[22] In Thapar's view, "The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."[23]
The dharma class of texts were noteworthy also because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasised dharma itself and not its Vedic origins.[24]
Structure of Book
The original narrative was subdivided into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written.[25] The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras. Manu[disambiguation needed] also introduced a unique "transitional verse" which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next.The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu's adopted son, Bhrigu, and an audience of the Rishis who had assembled. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu's teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first about how the Brahmins could be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action.
Salient features of Manusmriti
Knowledge is important than Birth in a clanManusmriti assigns various roles for the four Varnas of the community on the basis of their knowledge of Vedic texts. Manu[disambiguation needed], the senior most saint at that time, did not issue an 'ordinance' on classification of community by birth, as Britishers made it out to be. Their wrong consideration of Manusmriti as an ordinance, compartmentalised the Varna system in to four rigid caste system and harmed the Indian community. Manu's sermon to the congregation of Rishis was only an 'advisory'. The concept of dwija and shudra,[27] at birth of a human is not rigid or compartmentalised. It is fluid and flexible and can change with the type of work one adopts. Yajurveda says that at birth, all humans are born shudras, but the true birth or the second birth or true verna has to be achieved through education and profession. An important message is that a Shudra could qualify to a higher class by remaining clean, showing polite behaviour and in the company of other three higher Varnas.[28] Manusmriti also says that a Brahmin would be degraded and classified as a Shudra, even if he consumes liquer once.[29] Also, if a Brahmin remains uneducated he'll be equated to Shudra [30]
Knowers of Vedic texts, the 'Brahmins' are given the most important status for their enormous contributions to Dharm, Earth and Environment.[31] Dharmic duties of Brahmins are defined as reading and gaining knowledge, teaching to others, performing Yajnas and rituals, give and accept donations [32] Kshatriyas are told to provide security to people, give donations, hold yajnas, study and not to involve in discussions.[33] while that of Vaishyas are, animal husbandry, giving donations, hold yajnas, to study, do business, charge interest and do agriculture,.[34] Shudras, who are not educated at all, are given the task to serve the other three vernas.[35] This division of community is strictly on 'knowledge' basis. Even among Brahmins, those who have higher and deeper knowledge of Vedas are considered superiors.[36]
Lower Classes can Upgrade
There are several examples from history, that prominent Saints were born in lower varnas but qualified to higher vernas and were duly respected by all. Rishi Valmiki who was born in lower verna got education and qualified to become a religious writer and wrote, Valmiki Ramayana which is a revered document even today. Similarly, Aitareya saint or Rishi was son of a Daasa or criminal, but became a Brahmin of highest order and wrote one of classics Aitareya Brahmana and Aitareyopanishad. Aitareya Brahman is considered critical to understand Rigveda.
There are historical migrations of verna, in ancient history. Satyakaam Jaabal was son of a prostitute but qualified later on, to become a Brahmin. Allush Rishi was son of a 'Daasi', gambler and of low character but he did research on Rigveda and made several discoveries. Not only was he invited by Rishis but also made an Acharya [37]
Prishad who was son of king Daksha, became a Shudra because of his activities, had to do tapasya and achieve salvation after repenting.[38] Vidur, who was son of a servant became a Brahmin and a prominent minister in Hastinapur empire. Similarly, Vatsa became a Rishi though born to a Shudra.[39] Vishnu Puran[40] says that Guru of Pandavas, Shaunak, was born in a Kshatriya family but bacame a Brahmin. Raavana who was born a Brahmin to Pulatsaya Rishi, is considered a 'Raakshasha'.
During medieval period, in the 16th century, the Hindu king Hem Chandra Vikramaditya born in to a family of Purohits (Brahmins) got involved in business (Vaishya) and changed his profile again and became a warrior (Kshatriya) to win 22 battles continuously against Afghan rebels and Mughal forces throughout north India. [41]
Some other features of Varn classification are as follows: [42]
1. Division of society into four varnas. Out of these only the first three, namely, Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaishya, are collectively known as dwija (twice-born) are entitled to upanayan and the study of the Vedas. Shudras as well as women of dwija varnas, who had no use of learning Vedas because of kind of their responsibilities, were advised not to study of Vedas. However, Shudras could qualify to upper class by remaining clean, with observing polite behaviour and company of other three varnas.[43]
2. Assigning different duties and occupations for different varnas. According to Manusmriti, if a person of lower caste desires to adopt the occupation of a higher caste, he'll have to qualify for it by acquiring knowlwdge of Vedas.
3. Treating Brahmins as superiors, because they had all the knowledge of Vedas and Shudras as inferiors, who had no knowledge of Vedas.
4. Treating women as unequal. Women, that is, even women belonging to Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna are not entitled to upanayan and the study of the Vedas. For them, marriage is equivalent to upanayan and service of their husbands is equivalent to the study of the Vedas in the gurukul. Even if the husband is morally degraded, engaged in an affair with another woman and is devoid of knowledge and other qualities, the wife must treat him like a god. This is done to avoid the breaking of families. Besides, women are not considered fit for being free and independent. They are to be protected in their childhood by father, in youth by husband and in old age by son. They should never be allowed by their guardians to act independently. A woman must never do anything even inside her home without the consent of her father, husband and son respectively. She must remain in control of her father in childhood, of husband in youth and of son after the death of her husband. However, they are given equal right in the parental properties by Manu to empower them.
5. In fact, this system of graded inequality seems to be the very essence of the varna-vyavastha. Whether it is the choice of names, nor the manner of greeting, or the mode of entertaining guests, or the method of administering oath in the court, or the process of taking out the funeral procession, at each and every step in life, from birth to death, this system of graded inequality is to be applied and observed.
6. Prohibiting inter-marriage between different varnas. According to Manusmriti, a dwija ought to marry a woman of his own varna. A woman of the same varna is considered best for the first marriage.
7. Manu seems to be disapproving of pratiloma relationship more than the anuloma relationship, because he describes Chandalas as the lowest of the low castes.
8. Granting divine and religious sanction to varna-vyavastha. Manu gives divine and religious sanctions to the varna-vyavastha by claiming divine origin for the varnas as well as for the Manusmriti and demanding obedience of it.
9. Many Indians reject this varna-vyavastha which was advised 10,000 years ago, because it is irrational in present times as society has become cosmopolitan. The perceived unjust and undemocratic advices, are being opposed by some to be changed to democratic and attached with human values of liberty, equality and fraternity
Commentaries on Manu
There have been several commentaries on the dating and place of Manu, and the Manu Smṛti. Some of the commentaries are listed below:Bhāruci Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti. Kane places Manu in the late 10th or early 11th century,[44] Olivelle places him in the 8th century,[45] and Derrett places him between 600–650 CE.[45] From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. The surviving portion of Bhāruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.
Medhātithi Medhātithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smṛti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that Medhātithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between 820CE and 1050CE.[46]
Economic ideas The economic ideas found in Manusmriti have been traced by Ratan Lal Basu.[47]
Comments on Location of Brahmavarta
Manusmriti, one of the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, has been discussed and analysed by colonial scholars, modern liberals, and Hindu reformists regularly and continuously. Much of its criticism stems from its deemed, unknown authority, as some believe the text to be authoritative, though some consider it is only an advisory. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses, as there are many shaloks which are contradictory to each other. The new findings on the state of 'Brahmavarta' at the junction of Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers, as described in Manusmriti itself, and abode of Vedic Rishis like Bhrigu and Manu[48] are giving credence to the timing of its writing, flood time 10,000 years ago [49]
The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of indology, Sir William Jones, who had great respect for the book.[50] His version was published in 1794.[51] British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements. For British were interested in Dharmashastras due to administrative needs, and their misinterpretation of them as legal codes rather than as social and ritual texts created many confusions and encouraged caste system in India.[52]
According to Avari:
The text was not
followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came
to the world's attention through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir
William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its
importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of
classical Hindu law by Hindu
universalists. They are, however, anathema to some modern thinkers.[53]
Some commentaries suggest that the contents in
Manu Smriti appear to be positive towards the Brahmin (priest) caste in terms
of concessions made in fines and punishments. The stance of the Manu Smriti
about women has also been widely discussed. While certain verses such as (III –
55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify the position of women, other verses (IX – 3, 17)
seem to attack the position and freedom of women. The education of women is
also discussed in the text. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX – 18) claim
that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II – 240),
however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are
encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX – 94) and (IX – 90).Woman is to make her body beautiful by adorning it with clothes and ornaments; that the man may be attracted by her. Woman is to be so worshipped that she be made a fitting decoration for the man’s bedroom. Manu has given women the equal share in the parental property.
The laws of Manusmrithi consider woman to be an individual bound by the family relationships, with no rights of her own. The verses of the fifth chapter starting from 147 to 169 are all about the woman. Even if she were to become a widow in her youth, she is not to marry again, though now all Varnas go for re-marriages. Even if her husband indulges in adultery, she is still to consider him on equal footing with God. Woman is entitled to share in the wealth of the family. The wages for her labour will be half that of the man. So goes the laws of Manusmrithi concerning woman.[54]
In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar opined that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism.[55] However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.[56] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"[57] Hinduism does not evangelize.[58]
However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is authoritative. Some prominent Hindu figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati[59] and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami,[60] hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. "It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living"[61] Contra Nietzsche, Nipissing University philosophy professor W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smrti—a 'state of mind' that would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian Übermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions.
Puranas
The Puranas (Sanskrit: पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times") are a genre of important Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.[1]Puranas usually give prominence to a particular deity, employing an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts. They are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another. The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a traveling Brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective)
Origins
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is traditionally considered the compiler of the Puranas.[2] However, the earliest written versions date from the time of the Gupta Empire (third-fifth century CE) and much material may be dated, through historical references and other means, to this period and the succeeding centuries. The texts were probably written all over India.The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas.[3] On one hand, they existed in some oral form before being written[3] while at the same time, they have been incrementally modified well into the 16th century.[3][4]
An early reference is found in the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2). (circa 500 BCE). The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad refers to purana as the "fifth Veda",[5] itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ, reflecting the early religious importance of these myths, presumably then in purely oral form. Importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24.[6][7]
According to Pargiter,[6] the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas. Gavin Flood connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in the Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults.[8] Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas. She dates Markandeya Purana to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550 CE), Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c. 350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c. 450 CE, Brahmanda Purana to c. 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c. 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. 600–1000 CE.[9]
Common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.[8]
The All India Kashiraj Trust, formed under Vibhuti Narayan Singh, the Maharaja of Kashi, dedicated itself to publishing editions of the Puranas.[10]
Content
According to Matysa Purana,[11] they are said to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana pañcalakṣaṇa(Sanskrit:Template:Sanskrit) ("five distinguishing marks", though some scholars have suggested that these are shared by other traditional religious scriptures):[12][13]- Sarga: the creation of the universe.
- Pratisarga: secondary creations, mostly recreations after dissolution.
- Vamśa: genealogy of the gods and sages.
- Manvañtara: the creation of the human race and the first human beings. The epoch of the Manus' rule, 71 celestial Yugas or 308,448,000 years.
- Vamśānucaritam: the histories of the patriarchs of the lunar and solar dynasties.
Texts
The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas. These are always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though in fact they are not always counted in the same way. Combining the various lists Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen have collated twenty names|
Purana name
|
Verses number
|
Comments
|
|
15,400 verses
|
Contains details of
Vastu Shastra and Gemology.
|
|
|
18,000 verses
|
Indologist Ludo
Rocher considers it to be the most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,[19][20]
telling of Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of
Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many
Bhakti movements.[21]
|
|
|
14,500 verses
|
Contains a record of
prophecies. Portions of the extant text are drawn from the law book of Manu.[22]
|
|
|
10,000 verses
|
Describes the Godavari
and its tributaries. It is shortest of the Puranas.
|
|
|
12,000 verses
|
Includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus
recite as prayer.
|
|
|
17,000 verses
|
Describes ways to
worship Devis,
Krishna and Ganesha.
|
|
|
19,000 verses
|
Describes death and
its aftermaths.
|
|
|
16,000 verses
|
Is considered to be itihāsa
(epic poetry).
|
|
|
17,000 verses
|
|
|
|
11,000 verses
|
Describes the magnificence
of Lingam,
symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe. It also contains many stories of
Lingam one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved dispute between Vishnu and
Brahma.
|
|
|
9,000 verses
|
The Devi Mahatmya,
an important text for the Shaktas, is embedded in it.
|
|
|
14,000 verses
|
||
|
25,000 verses
|
||
|
55,000 verses
|
Describes the
greatness of Bhagavad Gita. Hence, it is also known as
gītāmāhātmya (lit. the majesty of Gita).
|
|
|
24,000 verses
|
Describes the
greatness of Shiva, greatness in worshiping Shiva and other stories about him.
|
|
|
81,100 verses
|
Describes the birth
of Skanda (or Karthikeya), second son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an
extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical
locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables,
hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
|
|
|
10,000 verses
|
Describes areas
around Kurukshetra
in North India.
|
|
|
24,000 verses
|
Describes various
forms prayer and devotional observances to Vishnu. Many illustrations also
involve Shiva and Durga.
|
|
|
24,000 verses
|
|
|
|
23,000 verses
|
Describes the many
mythic deeds of Vishnu and various ways to worship him.[26]
|
Classification
Puranas are classified according to qualification of persons who can understand them: "Purāṇas are supplementary explanations of the Vedas intended for different types of men. All men are not equal. There are men who are conducted by the mode of goodness, others who are under the mode of passion and others who are under the mode of ignorance. The Purāṇas are so divided that any class of men can take advantage of them and gradually regain their lost position and get out of the hard struggle for existence."[27]The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti[28]:
|
Vaiṣṇava Puranas:
|
|
|
Brāhma
Puranas:
|
|
|
Śaiva
Puranas:
|
According to the Padma Purana,[30] the texts may be classified in accordance with the three gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and indifference:
|
Sattva
("truth; purity")
|
|
|
Rajas
("dimness; passion")
|
|
|
Tamas ("darkness; ignorance")
|
The Upapuranas
Main article: Upapurana
The Upapurāṇas are lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also
said to be eighteen in number, with still less agreement as to the canonical
titles. Few have been critically edited. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha,
Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila,
Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha,
Mudgala,
and Hamsa.[31]The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha.[32][33] The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi worshipers.[34]
There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.[35]
Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the Tamil literature Tevaram. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean Shulman.[36]Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means "family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and may at times remain oral.[37] These have been little researched, though they are documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.Jain and Buddhist Puranas
Jain Puranas deal with Jain myths, history and legends and form a major part of early Kannada literature.[39] [40] The best known is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. The Buddhist scriptures have no mention of puranas. But the Tibetan and Nepalese Buddhist revere nine works as puranas which are styled as Navadharmas (nine dharmas). The so called “nine dharmas” are no canon of any sect, but a series of books which have been composed at different periods and belong to different persuasions. These nine works are: Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita, Gandavyuha, Samadhiraja, Lankavatara, Tathagataguhyaka, Saddharmapundarika, Lalitavistara, Suvarnaprabhasa and Dashabhumishvara. All these scriptures are also designated Vaipulyasutras. Among other works, Swayambhu Purana narrates the mythological history of Nepal and describes Buddhist pilgrimage sites inside the Kathmandu Valley
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