Chandas – ( Vedic meter)

The verses of the Vedas have a variety of different meters. They are divided by number of padas in a verse, and by the number of syllables in a pada. Chandas (छन्दः), the study of Vedic meter, is one of the six Vedanga disciplines, or "organs of the vedas".

jágatī: 4 padas of 12 syllables
triṣṭubh: 4 padas of 11 syllables
virāj: 4 padas of 10 syllables
anuṣṭup: 4 padas of 8 syllables, this is the typical shloka of classical Sanskrit poetry
gāyatrī: 3 padas of 8 syllables

Principles

The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables. The metrical unit of verse is the pada ("foot"^[1]), generally of eight, eleven, or twelve syllables; these are termed gāyatrī, triṣṭubh and jagatī respectively,^[2] after meters of the same name. A ṛc is a stanza of typically three or four padas, with a range of two to seven found in the corpus of Vedic poetry. Stanzas may mix padas of different lengths, and strophes of two or three stanzas (respectively, pragātha and tṛca) are common.
Syllables in a pada are also classified as metrically short (laghu "light") or long (guru "heavy"): a syllable is metrically short only if it contains a short vowel and is not followed by consecutive consonants in the same pada. All other syllables are long, by quality (having a long vowel or diphthong) or by position (being followed by a consonant cluster.) Comparison with the Avestan literature shows that originally there were no constraints on permissible patterns of long and short syllables, the principle being purely quantitative. Vedic prosody innovated a number of distinctive rhythms:

The last four syllables of a pada, termed the cadence by Indologists, are usually iambic or trochaic. This is mainly a strict alternation in the penultimate and antepenultimate syllables, as the final syllable can be of either weight.
A caesura is found after the fourth or fifth syllable in triṣṭubh and jagatī padas, dividing the pada into an opening and break before the cadence.
The break very often starts with two short syllables.
The opening shows an iambic or trochaic tendency in keeping with the cadence, though the first syllable can be of either weight, the alternation being in the second and third.

There is, however, considerable freedom in relation to the strict metrical canons of Classical Sanskrit prosody, which Arnold (1905) holds to the credit of the Vedic bards:

“

It must be plain that as works of mechanical art the metres of the Rigveda stand high above those of modern Europe in variety of motive and in flexibility of form. They seem indeed to bear the same relation to them as the rich harmonies of classical music bear to the simple melodies of the peasant. And in proportion as modern students come to appreciate the skill displayed by the Vedic poets, they will be glad to abandon the easy but untenable theory that the variety of form employed by them is due to chance, or the purely personal bias of individuals; and to recognize instead that we find all the signs of a genuine historical development.

”

Classification

Arnold (1905) uses the term dimeter for metrical schemes based on the 8-syllable (gāyatrī) pada, there being a twofold division of a pada into opening and cadence; and the term trimeter for schemes based on 11-syllable (triṣṭubh) or 12-syllable (jagatī) padas, the division being into opening, break and cadence.
The principal difference between the two forms of trimeter is in the rhythm of the cadence: generally trochaic for triṣṭubh padas and iambic for jagatī padas. Except for one significant collection, gāyatrī padas are also generally iambic in the cadence. The compatibility of iambic cadence underlies the significant variety of mixed meters combining gāyatrī and jagatī padas.

Dimeter forms

Metres with two to six gāyatrī padas are named dvipadā gāyatrī, gāyatrī, anuṣṭup, pańkti and mahāpańkti. Of these, only the gāyatrī and anuṣṭubh are frequently found.

Traditional literature

While Chandas (छंदः), the study of Vedic meter, is one of the six Vedanga ("limb of the vedas"), no treatises dealing exclusively with Vedic meter have survived. The oldest work preserved is the Chandas-shastra, at the transition from Vedic to Classical (Epic) Sanskrit poetry. Later sources are the Agni Purana, based on the Chandas shastra, chapter 15 of the Bharatiya Natyashastra, and chapter 104 of the Brihat-samhita. These works all date to the period roughly between 1000-1300AD. Vrittaratnakara of Kedarabhatta, dating to ca. the 14th century, is widely known, but does not discuss Vedic meter. The Suvrittatilaka of Kshemendra was also influential, and valuable for its quotations of earlier authors.
A well-known quantitative scheme in the traditional literature classifies the common meters according to the syllable count of a stanza, as multiples of 4: thus, dvipadā virāj (20), gāyatrī (24), uṣṇih (28), anuṣṭubh (32), bṛhatī (36), pańkti (40), triṣṭubh (44), and jagatī (48). This scheme omits the original virāj entirely (with 33 syllables) and fails to account for structural variations within the same total syllable count, such as the 28 syllables of the kākubh (8+12+8) versus the uṣṇih (8+8+12), or the 40 of the later virāj (4x10) versus the pańkti (5x8). More comprehensive schemes in the traditional literature have been mainly terminological, each distinct type of stanza carrying its own name. The classification is exhaustive rather than analytic: every variant actually found in the received text has been named without regard to any need for metrical restoration.

Vedic accent

he tone accent of Vedic Sanskrit, or Vedic accent for brevity, is traditionally divided by Sanskrit grammarians into three qualities, udātta "raised" (acute accent, middle tone), anudātta "not raised" (grave accent, lower tone) and svarita "sounded" (circumflex, higher tone).

The accents

Udātta marks the place of the inherited PIE accent. In transliteration, therefore, udātta is usually marked with an acute accent, and anudātta and svarita are unmarked since their positions follow automatically from the position of udātta. For example, in the first pada of the Rigveda, the transliteration

agním īḻe puróhitaṃ

"Agni I praise, the high priest."

means that the eight syllables have an intonation of

A-U-S-A-A-U-S-A (where A=anudātta, U=udātta, S=svarita),

or iconically,

_¯\__¯\_

īḻe is a finite verb and thus has no udātta, but its first syllable is svarita because the previous syllable is udātta.
Vedic meter is independent of Vedic accent and exclusively determined by syllable weight, so that metrically, the pada reads as

-.--.-.x (viz., the second half-pada is iambic).

In some cases an accented syllable disappeared due to linguistic changes in oral transmission of the samhita before it was written down, so that a svarita may be next after an anudātta: this is a so-called "independent svarita". In such cases, the svarita syllable is marked in transcription with a grave accent.
For example in RV 1.10.8c,

jéṣaḥ súvarvatīr apá

U-S-U-S-A-A-A-U

¯\¯\___¯

became

jéṣaḥ svàrvatīr apá

U-S-S-A-A-A-U

¯\\___¯

Independent svarita is caused by sandhi of adjacent vowels. There are four variants of it:-

jātya (= "innate") (due to changes within a word, as in kvà for kúa, as in the example above (u becomes v before a vowel)
kṣaipra (= "caused by quickness") (u becoming v or i becoming y where two words meet, as in vy-ā̂pta for ví-āpta) (i becomes y before a vowel)
praśliṣṭa (= "coalescence") (vowel contraction where two words meet, as in divī̂va for diví-iva)
abhinihita (= "close contact") (prodelision with avagraha where two words meet, as in té-'bruvan for té-abruvan).

Independent svarita occurs about 1300 times in the Rigveda, or in about 5% of padas.

Notation

In Latin script transcription, udātta is marked with an acute accent, independent svarita is marked with a grave accent, and other syllables are not marked with accent.
In Devanagari editions of the Rigveda samhita:

Svarita is marked with a small upright stroke above a syllable.
Anudātta is marked with a horizontal line below the syllable, if it is next before an udātta or an independent svarita. If the first syllable in a pada is anudātta, that syllable and all following syllables which are anudātta are marked with the horizontal line, up to and not including the first syllable which is not an anudātta.
If an independent svarita syllable is next before an udātta syllable, instead of putting the anudātta mark and the svarita mark on the same syllable, a figure 1 (if the svarita vowel is short) or a figure 3 (if the svarita vowel is long) is written between, and that figure has the svarita mark and the anudātta mark.^[1]
Other syllables are unmarked.

Chāndogya Upaniṣad

The Chandogya Upanishad (Devanagri: छान्दोग्य उपनिषद्) is one of the "primary" (mukhya) Upanishads. Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad it ranks among the oldest Upanishads, dating to the Vedic Brahmana period. It is associated with the Kauthuma Shakha of the Samaveda. It figures as number 9 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. It is part of the Chandogya Brahmana, which has ten chapters. The first two chapters of the Brahmana deal with sacrifices and other forms of worship. The other eight constitute the Chandogya Upanishad.^[3] Though there are more than two hundred Upanishads, ten are principal. These are called the Dashopanishads and are known for their philosophical depth, having become popular through the commentaries of Adi Shankara and Madhvacharya. Along with Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogyopanishad is an ancient source of principal fundamentals of Vedanta philosophy. A number of references made to this Upanishad in Brahma sutras indicate the special importance of this Upanishad in Vedantic philosophy. Important Upasana's such as Dahara vidya and Shandilya vidya are its speciality

Commentary

Of the available commentaries, the oldest was written by Adi Shankara. Adi Shankara stated that his commentary is a brief book for those who want a summary of this Upanishad. Ananda Giri mentioned in his commentary that a Dramidacharya wrote an elaborate and detailed commentary well before Adi Shakara, but little is known about this Dramidacharya and his work is now lost. Brahmanandi Tankacharya wrote a brief explanation for this upanishad and Dramidacharya wrote an elaborate and detailed commentary on the work of Brahmanandi Tankacharya. Sri Ramanuja makes many references to these two scholars in his commentaries, Vedanta Sangraha and Sri Bhasya.

Organization

The Chandogya Upanishad contains eight chapters, with each chapter divided into subchapters called Khanda.

First Chapter

The first chapter contains thirteen khanda's.
The first khanda ordains the Upasana of udgitha (or holy syllable OM). The syllable OM is called by the term udgitha since a priest designated as Udgātṛ starts his singing of Sama's with OM in Vedic yajnas.
The second khanda ordains that udgitha should be meditated as Vital Life Force or Prana, and tells a story to explain the Holiness of Prana describing how it remained untouched by evil while all other five senses got tainted by evil.
Third khanda says that udgitha should be meditated as sun god.
Fourth khanda continues telling one more method ( Upasana )for meditating upon OM as the Eternal and Ultimate Refuge ( Amritam, Abhayam) and tells that one who meditates this way becomes himself an Eternal and Ultimate Refuge.
Fifth khanda tells that one who meditates on the Sun and its rays as separate from each other or Prana and its functions such as speech etc. as separate from each other would beget many children.
One more Upasana of udgitha is told in Sixth khanda for obtaining all round wealth.
Seventh khanda ordains that OM (or udgitha) should be meditated as Purusha (Divine Person) present in the right eye who is nothing but another manifestation of Sun (Aditya)who in turn another manifestation of OM. Hence describes the equality of OM, Divine Person present in the Right Eye and Sun.
Another Upasana of udgitha is told in ninth and tenth khanda's which is said to result in a Superior Divine Essence ( Parovareeya Satva ) in the practitioner. This is told in the form of a story of Three Scholars of Sama.
Tenth and Eleventh khandas describe three parts of Sama called Prastava, udgitha and Pratihaara which are sung by priests in vedic Rituals and their respective gods through a Story of Priest Ushasti Chakrayana.
Twelfth khanda tells about the Udgitha Sama revealed by gods in the form of Dogs. The result of singing this Sama is availability of food.
Thirteenth khanda describes the various Upasana's of Sthobha-Akshara's.

Second Chapter

There are 24 khanda's in the second chapter. After having elaborated on different Upasana's of various organs of Sama, the second chapter elaborates many Upasana's of full Sama as a whole (that is, combined Sama with all Sama organs or parts). In other words, it can be said that if first chapter describes the Upasana of different body parts separately, the second chapter describes the Upasana's of whole body (Full Sama). Worshipping Full Sama or Whole Sama is described to be yielding good character (Saadhu Dharma) to worshipper in first khanda.
Second khanda describes Five-Fold Sama or Sama with Five Organs (Pancha Vidha Sama). HIM-Kara, Prastava, udgitha, Pratihara and Nidhana are the names of Five organs of Sama.
In second to seventh khanda's this Five-Fold Sama is ordained to be conceptualized or viewed as different worlds such as earth, heaven etc. in worldview, as wind, lightning etc. in view of process of raining, as cloud, rain, ocean etc. in water view, as different seasons like spring etc. in seasons view, as sheep etc. in animal view and finally as vital airs (Prana).
Each of these conceptualizations or views of FiveFold Sama is a separate Upasana of Fivefold Sama and described to be having definite fruit or result for the practitioner.
Eighth khanda ordains Seven-Fold Sama. Two more organs Adi and Upadrava are added to Five organs described in second khanda to make Sama Seven Fold. This Seven Fold Sama is ordained to be seen or viewed in the speech in eighth khanda. Fruit of this Upasana is worshipper never faces scarcity of food and will have enough food to provide for others.
Next Upasana is to meditate or view sevenfold sama in the movement of sun in the sky. Fruit of this upasana is worshipper attains Sun's form ( Aditya Swarupa ). This is the content of ninth khanda.
Tenth khanda ordains Upasana of syllables of seven organs of Seven Fold Sama (Sapta Vidha Sama Namakshara Upasana).
Khanda's 11–21 describe how some famous Samas or ( Sama Mantras ) to viewed.
Gayatra Sama is ordained to be viewed as Mind, Speech, Eye, etc.
Rathantara Sama is ordained to be viewed as process of generating fire by rubbing two wood pieces.
Vaamya Devya Sama is ordained to be viewed as mating process between male and female human beings.
Brihat Sama is ordained to be viewed as world activity as per of movement of sun across the horizon.
Vairupa Sama is ordained to be viewed as process of raining.
Vairaja Sama is ordained to be viewed as Seasonal Cycle.
Shakvaree Sama is ordained to be viewed as different worlds.
Revati Sama is ordained to be viewed as grazing animals.
Yagnya-Yagneeya Sama is ordained to be viewed as hair, skin, meat, etc.
Rajana Sama is ordained to be viewed as Fire, Wind, Stars, etc.
Finally Complete Sama or Sarva Sama is ordained to be viewed as three veda's (Trayi Vidya) which are Rigveda, Yajurveda and Sama veda and whole world.
Each of these Upasana's are mentioned along with a distinct fruit or result to the worshipper.
Later khandas of this chapter describe various modes of singing Sama, upasana on holy syllable OM, three Savana's, their respective gods and Sama's to them.

Third Chapter

This chapter has 19 khanda's. First 11 khanda's deal with Upasana of Sun and this Upasana is known as Madhu Vidya. Khandas 12 and 13 teach Brahman through Gayatri. 14th Khanda elaborates famous meditation Shandilya Vidya, known after its revealer the seer Shandilya. This Khanda describes the atman in terms of a grain: ‘This atman, which dwells in the heart, is smaller than a grain of rice, smaller than a grain of barely, smaller than a grain of mustard, smaller than a grain of millet, smaller than the germ which is in the grain of millet; this atman, which dwells in the heart, is also greater than the earth [the sphere of gross manifestation], greater than the atmosphere [the sphere of subtle manifestation], greater than the sky [the sphere of formless manifestation], greater than all the worlds together [that is, beyond all manifestation, being the unconditioned]. 15th Khanda describes Kosha Vidya for begetting long life and valour for one's son. 16th and 17th Khandas detail Purusha Vidya which results in increased life span of practitioner. It is told that seer Mahidasa Aitareya lived for 116 years by practicing Purusha Vidya. 18th Khanda ordains that Mind should be meditated as Brahman.

Fourth Chapter

The story of king Janushruti Pautrayana and the Self realized seer Raikva; and of Satyakama, the son of Jabala, is told in this chapter.^[4] A meditational practice called Samvarga Vidya, propagated by Raikva, is also described.

Fifth Chapter

The fifth chapter starts with a fable proclaiming the superiority of life breath over other senses. An esoteric knowledge of Five Fires (Panchangi Vidya) is also described. The concept of Vaishvanara Atman is also elucidated in this chapter.^[4]

Sixth Chapter

This chapter contains one of the more important metaphysical messages of this Upanishad. It contains the Mahavakya Tat Tvam Asi ("That art Thou").^[5] This chapter also establishes the principle of Atman through a dialogue between Uddalaka and his son Shvetaketu. Many metaphors, such as, the illustration of curd and butter, banyan tree and its seed, rivers and ocean etc, are given to illustrate the concept of Atman. Within this dialogue, the theory of being (sat) arising from non-being(asat) is refuted and pure undifferentiated being alone is held as the source of everything.^[6]

Seventh Chapter

At the start of this chapter, the four Vedas, the Itihasas, Puranas, mathematics, astrology, the science of treasures, logic, the science of ethics, etymology, fine arts etc are held as mere words by Narada who visits Sanatkumara seeking the knowledge of Atman or the Self. Sanatkumara through remainder of the verses describes the Self progressively through various stages, from grosser ones to subtler ones, culminating in the establishment of the Self as Bhuma or the Absolute. The various stages mentioned in order of subtlety as well as appearance in this chapter are Name, Speech, Mind, Will, Memory, Contemplation, Understanding, Strength, Food, Water, Heat, Ether, Memory, Hope, Life, Truth, Truth and Understanding, Thought and Understanding, Faith, Steadfastness, Activity, Happiness , The Infinite, The Infinite and the Finite, The Ego and the Self and The Primacy of the Self.^[7]

Eighth Chapter

The story of Indra's persistence in gaining the knowledge of Brahman is recounted in this chapter.^[4] The meditational technique of concentrating on the Universal Self(Brahman) in the cave of the heart (Dahara Vidya) is also explained

Charaka Samhita

The Caraka Saṃhitā (Devanagari:चरक संहिता) or "Compendium of Caraka" is an early Ayurvedic encyclopedia on medicine.^[1] It is believed to be the oldest of the three surviving ancient treatises of Ayurveda. It is central to the modern-day practice of Ayurvedic medicine;^{[dubious – discuss]} and, along with the Suśruta Saṃhitā or "Compendium of Suśruta," it was an important source of medical and life understanding and practice in antiquity.

Origins

The work of Caraka is datable to the period 100 BCE -- 100 CE.^[3] However, the text of the Carakasaṃhitā, written in Sanskrit, was re-edited after Caraka, by one Dṛḍhabala, and this is the version transmitted in manuscript to modern times. It is probably datable to the Gupta period, 300-500 CE.^[4]
Sanskrit caraka is a term for a wandering religious student or ascetic.
There are several legendary accounts of the origins of medical science in South Asia. According to one, the serpent-king Śeṣa, who was the recipient of Ayurveda, once visited the earth and finding it full of sickness he became moved with pity and determined to become incarnate as the son of a Muni for alleviating disease; he was called Caraka because he had visited the earth as a kind of spy or cara; he then composed a new book on medicine, based on older works of Agniveśa and Atreya pupils (Agniveśakr̥te tantre Charaka pratisaṃskr̥te).^[5]

The extant text has aṣṭāṅga sthāna (eight sections), totalling 120 chapters. These 8 sections are

Sūtra sthāna (30 chapters),
Nidāna sthāna (8 chapters),
Vimāna sthāna (8 chapters),
Śārīra sthāna (8 chapters),
Indriya sthāna (12 chapters),
Cikitsā sthāna (30 chapters),
Kalpa sthāna (12 chapters) and
Siddhi sthāna (12 chapters).

17 chapters of Cikitsā sthāna and complete Kalpa sthāna and Siddhi sthāna were added later by Dṛḍhabala (5th century). The text starts with Sūtra sthāna which deals with fundamentals and basic principles of Ayurveda practice. Unique scientific contributions credited to the Charaka Saṃhitā include:

a rational approach to the causation and cure of disease
introduction of objective methods of clinical examination

“Direct observation is the most remarkable feature of Ayurveda, though at times it is mixed up with metaphysics. The Saṃhitā emphasizes that of all types of evidence the most dependable ones are those that are directly observed by the eyes. In Ayurveda successful medical treatment crucially depends on four factors: the physician, substances (drugs or diets), nurse and patient. The qualifications of physician are: clear grasp of the theoretical content of the science, a wide range of experience, practical skill and cleanliness; qualities of drugs or substances are: abundance, applicability, multiple use and richness in efficacy; qualifications of the nursing attendant are: knowledge of nursing techniques, practical skill, attachment for the patient and cleanliness; and the essential qualifications of the patients are: good memory, obedience to the instructions of the doctors, courage and ability to describe the symptoms.”^[6]

Commentaries

The most celebrated commentary on this text is the Carakatātparyaṭīkā "Commentary on the Meaning of the Caraka" or the Ayurveda Dīpikā, "The Lamp to Ayurveda" written by [Cakrapāṇidatta] (1066). Other notable commentaries are Bhaṭṭāraka Hari(ś)candra's Carakanyāsa (c.6th century), Jejjaṭas Nirantarapadavyākhyā (c.875), Shivadasa Sena's Carakatattvapradīpikā (c.1460). Among the more recent commentaries are Narasiṃha Kavirāja's Carakatattvaprakāśa and Gaṅgādhara Kaviratna's Jalpakalpatāru (1879).

Caraka Saṃhitā on nursing

"The Caraka (Vol I, Section xv) states these men should be, 'of good behaviour, distinguished for purity, possessed of cleverness and skill, imbued with kindness, skilled in every service a patient may require, competent to cook food, skilled in bathing and washing the patient, rubbing and massaging the limbs, lifting and assisting him to walk about, well skilled in making and cleansing of beds, readying the patient and skilful in waiting upon one that is ailing and never unwilling to do anything that may be ordered."

Manusmṛti

Manusmṛti (written also as Manusmriti or Manusmruti) (Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति), also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is one metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of ancient Vedic Sanatana Dharma, presently called Hinduism.^[1] Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, or Dharmic discourse to vedic Rishis, on 'how to lead the life' or 'way of living' by various classes of society. The text presents itself as a discourse given by the sage Manu, to a congregation of seers, or rishis, who beseeched him, after the great floods,^[2] in the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', in India, some 10,000 years ago, to tell them on, how to face such calamities in future by organising themselves and lead an organised life with the "guidelines for all the social classes".^[3] Vetern sages Manu and Bhrigu gave them a discourse in some 2685 shaloks, compilation of which is called 'Manusmriti'. Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharmaśāstras that followed it.^[4] Manusmriti was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, an linguist, English Orientalist and judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta.^[5] who had great respect for the book

Date and Place

Different scholars have given a range of timings for creation of this text, from 1500 BCE to 500 AD. However, the basic fact of the time period of existence of flood-figure Manu^{[disambiguation
needed][7][8]} and Bhrigu, compariot and contemporary of Manu, who had his Ashram on the bank of 'Vadhusar River' in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta',^[9] who were the authors of Manusmriti, is ignored all together, which happens to be the period of great floods,^[10] 10,000 years ago, after last ice age having mentions in Persian book Avesta, Indian Sanskrit text Shatapatha Brahmana and now scientific evidence is available on various websites.^[2] Floods had ravaged the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', located on the confluence of two huge Vedic rivers Saraswati and Drishadwati, where the Ashrams of Devas were located.^[11] The state 'Brahmavarta' is now identified on the borders of North Rajasthan and South Haryana, mainly in and around Shekhawati and Jhunjhunu region of Rajasthan and parts of Haryana in the districts of Mahendragarh and Rewari on the basis of images of paleochannals ^[12] of these rivers from satellites, geo-morphological studies of the soils, which confirm presence of soil particals of Himalayan rocks in the ares represented by Saraswati river, and mentions of the area in Mahabharat, Rigved, Shatapatha Brahmana, Manusmriti and various Puranas.^[13] As per epic 'Mahabharat' Bhrigu Rishi had his Ashram at 'Deepotsak' on 'Vadhusar' river, and his son Chyavana, on Dhosi Hill ^[14] a tributory of Drishadwati river, in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta'. As per Skanda Purana, Bhrigu Rishi had migrated to 'Bharuch', located on Narmada river later on. Even Archeological findings near Narmada river are dated more than 8500 years old^[15] and said to be belonging to post Bhrigu era, confirming that Bhrigu and Manu had existed some 10,000 years ago, and their creation 'Manusmriti' is that old.
The identity of place 'Brahmavarta', the Vedic state ^[16] where, sages Manu and Bhrigu had given the discourse, and Manusmriti was compiled is also confirmed by the fact that the nomenclature used to describe, animals, birds, crops, trees, plants, house utilities, activities of people, geographical conditions etc. in 'Manusmriti' is still in use in the area, and these things exist physically also. Khetri Copper Mines and Dhosi Hill are important landmarks in 'Brahmavarta'. The Saraswati river, which had flown at the time of floods, made the western border of Brahmavarta state,^[17] while northern border was formed by Drishadwati river which had flown in along the inner side of Aravali hill from the pot of 'Brahma' called Pushkar lake near Ajmer in Rajasthan. Because of seismic activities in Aravali ranges 7–8000 years ago, Monsoon water from Ajmer district stopped flowing in to Drishadwati and migrated to Chambal RiverChambal river, however water from part of Jaipur, Sikar and Alwar districts in Rajasthan, still flows in the old Drishadwati river, presently known as 'Sahbi river' and finally goes in to Yamuna river near Delhi.^[18]

Context

Great floods ^[7][8] which occurred after rapid melting of Himalayan glaciers at the end of last ice age, and higher rainfalls in Aravalli ranges,^[19] were devastating for habitants of Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta' and surrounding areas. Senior Rishis of the area gathered and decided to approach the oldest Saint or Rishi Manu^{[disambiguation
needed]}, who had escaped the floods and is said to be 400 years old at that time, to advise the conference, from his memory (in Sanskrit and Hindi Smriti) and experiences, on 'how to face such calamities in future and lead a peaceful and organised life'.^[20] Thus, the 2685 shaloks discoursed by Manu^{[disambiguation
needed]} and Bhrigu to the conference on various aspects came to be known as 'Manusmriti', which some call 'Laws of Manu', while others consider it to be an 'advisory' only. This conference/congregation was also the beginning of organised living by Vedic people or formal launching of Vedic Sanatana Dharma.
Though most scholars had previously considered the text a composite put together over a long period of time, Olivelle has recently argued that the complex and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author. However, no details of this eponymous author's life are known, though it is likely that he belonged to a conservative Brahmin caste somewhere in Northern India.^[4]
An earlier opinion generally dated composition of the text any time between 200 BCE and 200 CE.^[21] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.^[22] In Thapar's view, "The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."^[23]
The dharma class of texts were noteworthy also because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasised dharma itself and not its Vedic origins.^[24]

Structure of Book

The original narrative was subdivided into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written.^[25] The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras. Manu^{[disambiguation
needed]} also introduced a unique "transitional verse" which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next.
The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu's adopted son, Bhrigu, and an audience of the Rishis who had assembled. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu's teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first about how the Brahmins could be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action.
Knowledge is important than Birth in a clan
Manusmriti assigns various roles for the four Varnas of the community on the basis of their knowledge of Vedic texts. Manu^{[disambiguation
needed]}, the senior most saint at that time, did not issue an 'ordinance' on classification of community by birth, as Britishers made it out to be. Their wrong consideration of Manusmriti as an ordinance, compartmentalised the Varna system in to four rigid caste system and harmed the Indian community. Manu's sermon to the congregation of Rishis was only an 'advisory'. The concept of dwija and shudra,^[27] at birth of a human is not rigid or compartmentalised. It is fluid and flexible and can change with the type of work one adopts. Yajurveda says that at birth, all humans are born shudras, but the true birth or the second birth or true verna has to be achieved through education and profession. An important message is that a Shudra could qualify to a higher class by remaining clean, showing polite behaviour and in the company of other three higher Varnas.^[28] Manusmriti also says that a Brahmin would be degraded and classified as a Shudra, even if he consumes liquer once.^[29] Also, if a Brahmin remains uneducated he'll be equated to Shudra ^[30]
Knowers of Vedic texts, the 'Brahmins' are given the most important status for their enormous contributions to Dharm, Earth and Environment.^[31] Dharmic duties of Brahmins are defined as reading and gaining knowledge, teaching to others, performing Yajnas and rituals, give and accept donations ^[32] Kshatriyas are told to provide security to people, give donations, hold yajnas, study and not to involve in discussions.^[33] while that of Vaishyas are, animal husbandry, giving donations, hold yajnas, to study, do business, charge interest and do agriculture,.^[34] Shudras, who are not educated at all, are given the task to serve the other three vernas.^[35] This division of community is strictly on 'knowledge' basis. Even among Brahmins, those who have higher and deeper knowledge of Vedas are considered superiors.^[36]
Lower Classes can Upgrade
There are several examples from history, that prominent Saints were born in lower varnas but qualified to higher vernas and were duly respected by all. Rishi Valmiki who was born in lower verna got education and qualified to become a religious writer and wrote, Valmiki Ramayana which is a revered document even today. Similarly, Aitareya saint or Rishi was son of a Daasa or criminal, but became a Brahmin of highest order and wrote one of classics Aitareya Brahmana and Aitareyopanishad. Aitareya Brahman is considered critical to understand Rigveda.
There are historical migrations of verna, in ancient history. Satyakaam Jaabal was son of a prostitute but qualified later on, to become a Brahmin. Allush Rishi was son of a 'Daasi', gambler and of low character but he did research on Rigveda and made several discoveries. Not only was he invited by Rishis but also made an Acharya ^[37]
Prishad who was son of king Daksha, became a Shudra because of his activities, had to do tapasya and achieve salvation after repenting.^[38] Vidur, who was son of a servant became a Brahmin and a prominent minister in Hastinapur empire. Similarly, Vatsa became a Rishi though born to a Shudra.^[39] Vishnu Puran^[40] says that Guru of Pandavas, Shaunak, was born in a Kshatriya family but bacame a Brahmin. Raavana who was born a Brahmin to Pulatsaya Rishi, is considered a 'Raakshasha'.
During medieval period, in the 16th century, the Hindu king Hem Chandra Vikramaditya born in to a family of Purohits (Brahmins) got involved in business (Vaishya) and changed his profile again and became a warrior (Kshatriya) to win 22 battles continuously against Afghan rebels and Mughal forces throughout north India. ^[41]
Some other features of Varn classification are as follows: ^[42]
1. Division of society into four varnas. Out of these only the first three, namely, Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaishya, are collectively known as dwija (twice-born) are entitled to upanayan and the study of the Vedas. Shudras as well as women of dwija varnas, who had no use of learning Vedas because of kind of their responsibilities, were advised not to study of Vedas. However, Shudras could qualify to upper class by remaining clean, with observing polite behaviour and company of other three varnas.^[43]
2. Assigning different duties and occupations for different varnas. According to Manusmriti, if a person of lower caste desires to adopt the occupation of a higher caste, he'll have to qualify for it by acquiring knowlwdge of Vedas.
3. Treating Brahmins as superiors, because they had all the knowledge of Vedas and Shudras as inferiors, who had no knowledge of Vedas.
4. Treating women as unequal. Women, that is, even women belonging to Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya varna are not entitled to upanayan and the study of the Vedas. For them, marriage is equivalent to upanayan and service of their husbands is equivalent to the study of the Vedas in the gurukul. Even if the husband is morally degraded, engaged in an affair with another woman and is devoid of knowledge and other qualities, the wife must treat him like a god. This is done to avoid the breaking of families. Besides, women are not considered fit for being free and independent. They are to be protected in their childhood by father, in youth by husband and in old age by son. They should never be allowed by their guardians to act independently. A woman must never do anything even inside her home without the consent of her father, husband and son respectively. She must remain in control of her father in childhood, of husband in youth and of son after the death of her husband. However, they are given equal right in the parental properties by Manu to empower them.
5. In fact, this system of graded inequality seems to be the very essence of the varna-vyavastha. Whether it is the choice of names, nor the manner of greeting, or the mode of entertaining guests, or the method of administering oath in the court, or the process of taking out the funeral procession, at each and every step in life, from birth to death, this system of graded inequality is to be applied and observed.
6. Prohibiting inter-marriage between different varnas. According to Manusmriti, a dwija ought to marry a woman of his own varna. A woman of the same varna is considered best for the first marriage.
7. Manu seems to be disapproving of pratiloma relationship more than the anuloma relationship, because he describes Chandalas as the lowest of the low castes.
8. Granting divine and religious sanction to varna-vyavastha. Manu gives divine and religious sanctions to the varna-vyavastha by claiming divine origin for the varnas as well as for the Manusmriti and demanding obedience of it.
9. Many Indians reject this varna-vyavastha which was advised 10,000 years ago, because it is irrational in present times as society has become cosmopolitan. The perceived unjust and undemocratic advices, are being opposed by some to be changed to democratic and attached with human values of liberty, equality and fraternity.

Commentaries on Manu

There have been several commentaries on the dating and place of Manu, and the Manu Smṛti. Some of the commentaries are listed below:
Bhāruci Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti. Kane places Manu in the late 10th or early 11th century,^[44] Olivelle places him in the 8th century,^[45] and Derrett places him between 600–650 CE.^[45] From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. The surviving portion of Bhāruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.
Medhātithi Medhātithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smṛti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that Medhātithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between 820CE and 1050CE.^[46]
Economic ideas The economic ideas found in Manusmriti have been traced by Ratan Lal Basu.^[47]
Comments on Location of Brahmavarta
Manusmriti, one of the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, has been discussed and analysed by colonial scholars, modern liberals, and Hindu reformists regularly and continuously. Much of its criticism stems from its deemed, unknown authority, as some believe the text to be authoritative, though some consider it is only an advisory. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses, as there are many shaloks which are contradictory to each other. The new findings on the state of 'Brahmavarta' at the junction of Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers, as described in Manusmriti itself, and abode of Vedic Rishis like Bhrigu and Manu^[48] are giving credence to the timing of its writing, flood time 10,000 years ago ^[49]
The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of indology, Sir William Jones, who had great respect for the book.^[50] His version was published in 1794.^[51] British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements. For British were interested in Dharmashastras due to administrative needs, and their misinterpretation of them as legal codes rather than as social and ritual texts created many confusions and encouraged caste system in India.^[52]
According to Avari:

The text was not followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came to the world's attention through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of classical Hindu law by Hindu universalists. They are, however, anathema to some modern thinkers.^[53]

Some commentaries suggest that the contents in Manu Smriti appear to be positive towards the Brahmin (priest) caste in terms of concessions made in fines and punishments. The stance of the Manu Smriti about women has also been widely discussed. While certain verses such as (III – 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify the position of women, other verses (IX – 3, 17) seem to attack the position and freedom of women. The education of women is also discussed in the text. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX – 18) claim that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II – 240), however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX – 94) and (IX – 90).
Woman is to make her body beautiful by adorning it with clothes and ornaments; that the man may be attracted by her. Woman is to be so worshipped that she be made a fitting decoration for the man’s bedroom. Manu has given women the equal share in the parental property.
The laws of Manusmrithi consider woman to be an individual bound by the family relationships, with no rights of her own. The verses of the fifth chapter starting from 147 to 169 are all about the woman. Even if she were to become a widow in her youth, she is not to marry again, though now all Varnas go for re-marriages. Even if her husband indulges in adultery, she is still to consider him on equal footing with God. Woman is entitled to share in the wealth of the family. The wages for her labour will be half that of the man. So goes the laws of Manusmrithi concerning woman.^[54]
In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar opined that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism.^[55] However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.^[56] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"^[57] Hinduism does not evangelize.^[58]
However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is authoritative. Some prominent Hindu figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati^[59] and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami,^[60] hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. "It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living"^[61] Contra Nietzsche, Nipissing University philosophy professor W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smrti—a 'state of mind' that would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian Übermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions.

Devi Mahatmya

The Devi Mahatmyam or Devi Mahatmya (Sanskrit: devīmāhātmyam, देवीमाहात्म्यम्), or "Glory of the Goddess") is a Hindu text describing the victory of the goddess Durga over the demon Mahishasura. As part of the Markandeya Purana, it is one of the Puranas or secondary Hindu scriptures, and was composed in Sanskrit around c. 400-500 CE, with authorship attributed to the sage (Rishi) Markandeya.
Devi Mahatmyam is also known as the Durgā Saptashatī (ढुर्गासप्तशती) or simply Saptashatī, Caṇḍī (चण्डी) or Caṇḍī Pāṭha (चण्डीपाठः) - where pāṭha – "reading" – refers to the act of ritual reading. The text contains 700 (saptashata - "seven hundred") verses, arranged into 13 chapters. By far the most important text of Shaktism,^[1] the text has a central place in Shakta ritual.
Devi Mahatmyam is seen as an attempt to unify the Vedic male pantheon with the pre-existing mother goddess cult possibly dating to the 9th millennium BCE,^[2] and an attempt to define divinity as a female principle. The text synthesizes a number of pre-existing Mother goddess myths of Aryan and non-Aryan origin into a single narrative.^[3] The position of the Goddess as Shakti, power itself, beyond the patriarchal position as consort of an eclipsing male deity, is an important transition in Hindu mythology. Also, there are links to aspects of Samkhya philosophy in the narrative.
For ritual reading purposes a number of subsidiary texts are appended before and after. A ritual reading of this text is part of the Navaratri celebrations in honour of the Goddess. In eastern India, the ritual reading (chandipATh) is common at several functions, particularly in death rites. On Mahalaya, the last day of the previous fortnight Pitru Paksha (Pitri Pokkho), ‘Fortnight of the Forefathers’, recitation of Devi Mahatmyam (Chandi Path), and signifies the beginning of Durga Puja festivities. Bengalis traditionally wake up at 4 in the morning on Mahalaya day to listen to Mahisasura Mardini in the voice of the late Birendra Krishna Bhadra and the late Pankaj Kumar Mullick on All India Radio as they recite hymns from the scriptures

Etymology

Sanskrit māhātmya- "magnanimity, highmindedness, majesty" is a neuter abstract noun of māha-ātman- "great soul". The title devīmāhātmyam is a tatpurusha compound, literally translating to "the magnanimity of the goddess".
The text is called Saptaśati as it contains 700 shlokas. (sapta=7,shata=100) verses. This count includes even one line sentences which are not strictly verses. There is another opinion that the name should be Saptasati as it deals with the story of seven Satis or "pious persons". The seven mothers are Brāhmi, Māheśwari, Kaumāri, Vaisṇavi, Vārāhi, Indrāṇi, and Cāmunḍa.^[4]
Caṇḍī or Caṇḍīka is the name by which the Supreme Goddess is referred to in Devī Māhātmya. According to Coburn, "Caṇḍīkā is "the violent and impetuous one", from the adjective caṇḍa "fierce, violent, cruel". The epithet is unprecedented in Vedic literature and is first found in a late insertion to the Mahabharata, where Chaṇḍā and Chaṇḍī appear as epithets.

Significance

The Devi Mahatmya was considered significant among the Puranas by Indologists. This is indicated by the early dates at which it was translated into European languages. It was translated into English in 1823, followed by an analysis with excerpts in French in 1824. It was translated into Latin in 1831 and Greek in 1853.^[6]
Devi Mahatmya has been translated into most of the Indian languages. There are also a number of commentaries and ritual manuals. The commentaries and ritual manual followed vary from region to region depending on the tradition.

Place in the Hindu canon

Devi Māhātmyam has been called the Testament of Shakta philosophy^[7] It is the base and root of Shakta doctrine.^[8] It appears as the centre of the great Shakti cult.
Here, for the first time, "the various mythic, cultic and theological elements relating to diverse female divinities were brought together in what has been called the 'crystallization of the Goddess tradition."^[10]
The unique feature of Devi Māhātmyam is the oral tradition. Though it is part of the devotional tradition, it is in the rites of the Hindus that it plays an important role. The entire text is considered as one single Mantra and a collection of 700 Mantras.
The Devi Māhātmyam is treated in the cultic context as if it were a Vedic hymn or verse with sage(ṛṣi), meter, pradhnadevata, and viniyoga (for japa). It has been approached, both by Hindus and Western scholars, as scripture in and by itself, where its significance is intrinsic, not derived from its Puranic context.^[11]
According to Damara Tantra "Like Aswamedha in Yagnas, Hari in Devas, Sapthsati is in hymns." "Like the Vedas; Saptasati is eternal" says Bhuvaneshwari Samhita.^[12]
There are many commentaries on Devi Māhātmya.

Guptavati by Bhaskararaya
Nagesi by Nagoji Bhat
Santhanavi
Puspanjali
Ramashrami
Dhamsoddharam
Durgapradeepam are some of them.^[13]

The significance of Devi Māhātmya has been explained in many Tantric and Puranic texts like Katyayani Tantra, Gataka Tantra, Krodha Tantra, Meru Tantram, Marisa Kalpam, Rudra Yamala, and Chidambara Rahasya.^[13] A number of studies of Shaktism appreciate the seminal role of Devi Māhātmya in the development of the Shakta tradition.

Philosophy

Devi Mahatmya accepts the ancient Vedic tradition in the form of Vāk and Trayī Vidyā and the philosophical doctrine of the codified system of Samkhya (Prakriti manifesting as the three Gunas) and Vedānta as Paramavidyā, the cause of Mukti. Further it synthesizes the then prevailing local Mother goddess cults of Aryan and non-Aryan origin.^[14]
In the first chapter it is said "all lives are conscious, but that knowledge is connected with senses. That goddess Bhagavatī, granting all kinds of prosperity, makes even the wise attracted to worldly pleasures and things forcibly with her great power of attraction. This ever-changing world with all its animate and inanimate things, is created by her. As the cause of salvation she turns into supreme spiritual knowledge, and is thus eternal; and again as the cause of bondage to worldly things she turns into things mundane and is the mistress of all, including Gods. She is eternal (and is thus beyond our knowledge) and pervades the world which may accordingly be called her form. Yet for the assistance of the lustrous souls, she appears in different forms."^[15]
Though the figure of Siva is known in Devī Māhātmya the goddess bears no special relationship to him. In fact she bears no special relationship with anyone other than her devotees. While each God has a Sakti, Devī Māhātmya avoids characterizing such forms as consorts, for the Goddess is Sakti, power itself beyond the realm of being a consort to anyone. Devī Māhātmya does not know the conceptualization that Sakti is feminine and its possessor or vehicle masculine, for as it is seen, the Goddess herself can put forth a Sakti.^[16]

The Devī Māhātmya consists of chapters 81-93 of the Mārkandeya Purana, one of the early Sanskrit Puranas, which is a set of stories being related by the sage Markandeya to Jaimini and his students (who are in the form of birds). The thirteen chapters of Devi Māhātmya are divided into three charitas or episodes. At the beginning of each episode a different presiding goddess is invoked, none of whom is mentioned in the text itself.^[17]
The framing narrative of Devi Mahatmya presents a dispossessed king, a merchant betrayed by his family, and a sage whose teachings lead them both beyond existential suffering. The sage instructs by recounting three different epic battles between the Devi and various demonic adversaries (the three tales being governed by, respectively, Mahakali (Chapter 1), Mahalakshmi (Chapters 2-4) and Mahasaraswati (Chapters 5-13). Most famous is the story of Mahishasura Mardini – Devi as "Slayer of the Buffalo Demon" – one of the most ubiquitous images in Hindu art and sculpture, and a tale known almost universally in India. Among the important goddess forms the Devi Mahatmyam introduced into the Sanskritic mainstream are Kali and the Sapta-Matrika ("Seven Mothers").

First Episode

The first story of the Devi Mahatmya depicts Devi in her universal form as Shakti. Here Devi is central and key to the creation; she is the power that induces Narayana's deep slumber on the waters of the cosmic ocean prior to the manifestation of the Universe which is a continuous cycle of manifestation, destruction and re-manifestation. Vishnu manifests from all pervading Narayan and goes into deep slumber on Adi Seshu. Two demons arise as thoughtforms from Vishnu's sleeping body and endeavour to vanquish Brahma who is preparing to create the next cycle of the Universe. Brahma sings to the Great Goddess, asking her to withdraw from Vishnu so he may awaken and slay the demons. Devi agrees to withdraw and Vishnu awakens and vanquishes the demons. Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored.^[19]

Middle Episode

"Durga, the great Warrior Goddess, represents the lethal energy of divine anger when turned against evil. The world was under attack by Mahishasura, the most evil demon in the world, who took many different forms, including that of a buffalo. The male gods, fearing total annihilation endowed Durga with their powers. Riding a lion into battle, Durga slew the buffalo by cutting off its head and then she destroyed the spirit of the demon as it emerged from the buffalo's severed neck. It is through this act that order was established in the world."^[

Final Episode

Kali may be understood to represent or "aspect" the darker, chthonic, transformative qualities of Devi's power or Shakti. Kali's emergence is chronicled in the third story of the Devi Mahatmya. Kali emerges from Devi's eyebrows as a burst of psychic energy. Kali overpowers and beheads Chanda and Munda, and when she delivers their severed heads to Devi, she is dubbed Chamunda.
During a fierce battle in which the Great Goddess demonstrates her omnipotence by defeating powerful demons who terrify the devas, she encounters the fierce Raktabija (chapter 8). Every drop of blood Raktabija sheds transforms into another demon as it touches the earth. A unique strategy has to be devised to vanquish him. A fiery burst of energy emerging from Devi's third eye takes the dark skeletal form of goddess Kali. With her huge mouth and enormous tongue she ferociously laps up Raktabija's blood, thus preventing the uprising of further demons.
The story continues in which Devi, Kali and a group of Matrikas destroy the demonic brothers Sumbha (chapter 10) and Nisumbha (chapter 9). In the final battle against Shumbha, Devi absorbs Kali and the matrikas and stands alone for the final battle.^[20]

Symbolism of the three episodes

Coburn says: "The sage's three tales are allegories of outer and inner experience, symbolized by the fierce battles the all-powerful Devi wages against throngs of demonic foes. Her adversaries represent the all-too-human impulses arising from the pursuit of power, possessions and pleasure, and from illusions of self-importance. Like the battlefield of the Bhagavad Gita, the Devi Mahatmya's killing grounds represent the field of human consciousness ... The Devi, personified as one supreme Goddess and many goddesses, confronts the demons of ego and dispels our mistaken idea of who we are, for – paradoxically – it is she who creates the misunderstanding in the first place, and she alone who awakens us to our true being."^[21] Chapter 1, Chapter 4, chapter 5, chapter 11 describe the praise given to the great Goddess Mahakali yognindra, Goddess Chandi, who slayed Mahishasura, Goddess Adi-Shakti or Parvati, the one who is source of all other Goddesses and power inside all gods and Goddess Durga, who was born from the partial expansion of the Goddess Parvati respectively declares that Goddess Adi-shakti is Supreme of all and source of all creation. In chapter 1, Lord Brahma even praises that the great Goddess has created everything including himself, Vishnu and Shiva.^[22]

Hymns

Coburn has said:
"While, in terms of quantity of verses, the Goddess's martial exploits are predominant, in terms of quality, these are surpassed by verses of another genre, viz., the hymns to the Goddess. Much of the power of the Devī Māhātmya derives from the way in which the hymnic material is held in counterpoint to the discursive account of her salvific activity in the world, but to the reader-hearer it is clear that the devotional fervor of the text, and the synthetic work it is performing, emerge most intensely in the hymns."
The four Hymns are:

Brahma-stuti also known as Tantrik Ratri Suktam (Chapter 1): In the first episode, when Brahma hymns Yoganidra, requesting her withdrawal from Vishnu so that he can slay Madhu and Kaitaba.^[24]
Sakradi-stuti (Chapter 4): At the end of second episode, after the Goddess has vanquished demon Mahishasura and his hordes, the Gods with first god Indra, praise her.^[25]
The "Ya Devi" Hymn also known as Aparajita-stuti or Tantrik Devi Suktam (Chapter 5): At the beginning of the third episode, when the beleaguered gods recall the Goddess's promise to assist them, they head to Mount Himavan and there offer a hymn to the Goddess.^[26]
Narayani-stuti (Chapter 11): At the conclusion of the third episode, after the Goddess has disposed of Sumbha and Nisumbha, she is hymned by the Gods.^[27]

Angās (Appendages)

As an independent text, Devī Māhātmya has acquired a number of "limbs" or "subsidiary texts" or "appendages" (angas) over the years "fore and aft". According to Coburn "artistic evidence suggests that the angas have been associated with the text since the fourteenth century." The angas are chiefly concerned with the ritual use of Devī Māhātmya and based on the assumption that the text will be recited aloud in the presence of images.^[28]
There are two different traditions in the Anga parayana. One is the trayanga parayana (Kavacha, Argala,Keelaka). The other is the Navanga parayana (Nyasam, Avahanam, Namani, Argalam, Keelakam, Hrudayam, Dhalam, Dhyanam, Kavacham). The navanga format is followed in kerala and some other parts in South India.

Preceding subsidiary texts

Durga Saptasloki also known as "Amba Stuti" - They are introduced as one-verse query from Siva who asks about the means of achieving what is desired, and a one verse response from the Goddess who says she will proclaim the relevant discipline (sadhana) by revealing Amba Studi which consists of the seven verses indicated.^[29]
Devi-kavacham - The Devi Kavacham consisting of 61 Slokas is in Markandeya Purana. This Kavacham (armour) protects the reader in all parts of his body, in all places and in all difficulties.^[30]
Argala-stotram - Here Rishi Markandeya is telling his disciples in 27 inspiring couplets on the greatness of Devi. She has been described in all aspects and names and at the end of each Sloka, prayer is offered to Devi for material prosperity, physical fitness, fame and victory.^[30]
Keelakam - Here also Rishi Markandeya tells his disciples in 16 Slokas, the ways and means of removing obstacles faced by devotees, while reading Devi Mahatmya.^[30]
Ratri Suktam (Vedic) - Ratri Suktam (8 Slokas) has been taken from Rig Veda, 10th Mandala, 10th Anuvaka, 127 th Sukta,which shows that Devi was worshipped from time immemorial. Devi is described as the all-pervading Supreme Lord of the Universe appearing in Omkara. Here Ratri is the Goddess who fulfills our prayers.^[30]
Kunjika Stotram is also a beautiful hymn written in the saptashati which is said to be the mixture of the three hymns i.e.,Kavacham,Argala stotram,Keelakam and also Rahasya parvam (Murthy Rahasyam and Vaikrutika Rahasyam).It is said that Lord Shiva had recited this shloka to Parvathi at her attainment of BramhaGyaan. This shloka plays an importantrole in Devi Saptashati. It is at the ending of the book.
Ratri Suktam (Tantrik) - The hymn in the first chapter is the Tantrik Ratri Sukta.^[31]

Either the Ratri Suktam (Vedic) or Ratri Suktam (Tantrik) is read depending upon whether the ritual is Vaidic or Tantrik.
One of the texts recited by some traditions is the Devī-Atharva-Śirṣa-Upaniṣad (Devi Upaniṣad).

Succeeding subsidiary texts

Pradhana Rahasyam - "Deals with the process of creation. It is the secret about mula Prakrti who is the cause of creation."^[32]
Vaikritika Rahasyam - "Describes how the Godhead beyond change subjected itself to change, how the mula prakrti (productive) ,became vikriti (produced); hence the name Vaikritika Rahasyam."^[32]
Murti Rahasyam - "The incarnations, the Avatar murtis of the Goddess are mentioned."^[32]
Devi Suktam (Rig Vedoktam) - (According to Rig Veda): "The 8 Slokas composed by Vak, the daughter of Maharshi Ambharin, are from the Rig Veda, 10th Mandala, 10th Anuvaka, 125th Sukta. These Slokas express the truth realised by Vak, who identifies herself as Brahma Sakti, and expresses herself as 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus, 12 Adityas and all the Devas,— Indra, Agni and Asvini Kumaras—who are sustained by Her and She is the source, substratum and support of the whole world. She is verily Brahmasvarupini (embodiment of Brahman)."^[30]
Devi Suktam (Tantrik) - The hymn in chapter 5 is Tantrik Devi Suktam.^[31]

The number and order of these depend on the Sampradaya (tradition).^[33][34]
Either the Devi Suktam (Vedic) or Devi Suktam (Tantrik) is read depending upon whether the ritual is Vedic or Tantrik.
At the end of a traditional recitation of the text, a prayer craving pardon from the Goddess known as Aparadha Kshmapana Stotram is recited.

Mantra

Bhāskararāya in his commentary "Guptavatīi" has noted that, among the mantras related to the worship of Brahman vis a vis Sakthi with attributes, the Navārna mantra and Saptasati are preeminent. Saptasati here is understood as constituting one very long mantra. Navārna mantra has been explained in Devī-Atharva-Śirṣa-Upaniṣad (Devi Upaniṣad).

In popular tradition

The recitation of Devi Mahatmya is done during the Sharad Navaratri (Oct. - Nov.) in India, other countries in Indian Subcontinent and all over the world where Hindus are settled. The text is also recited during the Vasantha Navaratri (March - April) in Uttarakhand, Jammu, Himachal Pradesh and other states of north India.[1][2]. It is also chanted during special occasions like temple kumbabhishekam and as a general parihara.
Devi Mahatmya is the ritual text for performing Chandi Homam . This is one of the most popular Yagnas conducted throughout India. This is performed for the general welfare of people

Devi-Bhagavata Purana

Devi-Bhagavata Purana (Sanskrit, n., देवी भागवतपुराण, Devī Bhāgavatapurāṇa, "the old book of the Goddess"), also known as Shrimad Devi Bhagvatam or Devi Bhagavatam, is one of the most important work in Shaktism, the veneration in Hinduism of the divine feminine, next to Devi Mahatmya.^[1] Although the Devi-Bhagavata Purana is considered as a Upapurana (secondary Purana) by many, the text claims itself a Maha Purana ("Great Purana").^[2]
The Devi-Bhagavata Purana is one of the Puranic works that are not necessarily authoritative for all Hindus, but that have special importance for the Shakta sect within Hinduism. The text describes the Devi (eng: Divine) the Goddess, as the foundation of the world and as identical with Brahman, the Supreme Being. As the divine mother, she reveals her virat rupa (universal form) (Book 7, Chapter 33) and describes the proper ways for worshipping her: especially the practice of Yoga, Meditation (Book 7, Chapter 35), and Ritual (Book 7, Chapter 39). The Devi-Bhagavata Purana also deals with topics like spiritual knowledge, social and personal ethics, and holy places

Origin

The Devi-Bhagavata Purana was probably written in Bengal, and has been dated between the 6th and 14th century CE.^[3]

According to a statement mentioned in the text (i.2.11-16), Devi-Bhagavata Purana consists of 12 skandhas (books), 318 adhyayas (chapters) and 18,000 verses and it is ascribed to the mythical sage Krishna Dvaipayana Veda Vyasa,^[4] who is also regarded as the author of the Mahabharata and who is credited with dividing the Vedas into four parts.
The first skandha consists of 20 chapters. The first three chapters of the first skandha deal with the praise of Suta by Shaunaka for studying the eighteen puranas from Veda Vyasa and on the request of Shaunaka, Suta's beginning of narration. Chapters 4-19 describe the narrative of Śuka. The last chapter narrates the story of the Mahabharata from the marriage of Shantanu with Satyavati to the birth of Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidura.^[4]
The second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh skandhas consist of 12, 30, 25, 35, 31 and 40 chapters respectively. The last nine chapters (31-40) of the seventh skandha is known as the Devi Gita. It is a dialogue between Parvati and her father Himavat. It deals with the universal form of the Devi, meditations on the major texts of Upanishads, ashtanga-yoga, the yogas of jnana, karma and bhakti, locations of the temples dedicated to the Devi and the rituals pertaining to her worship. The eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth skandhas have 24, 50, 13, 24 and 14 chapters respectively.
Like other Puranas, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana contains narratives, sections praising the Devi as supreme, and instructions in various types of sadhana. Parts of it have worked their way into popular Hinduism, such as the narrative of the goddess Durga in her fight against the buffalo-demon Mahishasura (Book 5, Chapters 2-18), which is also described in the Devi Mahatmya. This narrative provides the mythological backdrop for the annual ritual called Durga Puja, celebrated especially in Bengal

Divya Prabandha

The Nalayira Divya Prabandham (Tamil: நாலாயிர திவ்ய பிரபந்தம்) is a collection of 4,000 Tamil verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD,^[1] by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The work is the beginning of the canonization of the 12 Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively even today. The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamuni.
The Prabandha sings the praise of Narayana (or Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are known as the Divya Desams.
The Tamil Vaishnavites are also known as Ubhaya Vedanti(those that follow both vedas). In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaari Maaran, Sadagopan of Thiruk Kurugoor).
The Tiruvaymoli ("words of the sacred mouth") is one of the Divya Prabandha, an important liturgical compilation of the Tamil Alvar Bhaktas, collected in the 9th century by Nammalvar. The author self-identifies as a lovelorn Gopi pining for Krishna

Compilation

These once thought of being lost were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamuni.
Nathamuni was born in Veera Naarayanapuram(Veeranam) or present day Kaattu Mannaar Koil. There is a lot of gap in time between Thirumangai Alvar(the last alvar) and Nathamuni. In this dark period, nobody knew what happened to the 4000 verses.
Legend has it that once Nathamuni heard some people reciting the decad of Aaraavamude of Nammaazhvaar at Kumbakonam. Captivated by these paasurams(hymns), he wanted to know more about them. One of the verses also mentioned Aayiraththul Ippaththu (Tamil: these 10 out of the 1000). When Nathamuni enquired about the remaining 990, the people who sang the 10 did not know anything about the other verses. But as the song mentioned the name and place of the azhwar(Kurugoor Satakopan), Nathamuni proceeded to Thirukurugoor and asked the people there about Swami Nammazhwar's 1000 verses.^[2]
The people did not know the 1000 that Nathamuni wanted, but they told him about 11 pasurams(hymns) of Madhurakavi Alvar, who was the disciple of Nammazhwar Kanninun Siruthaambu. They asked him to go to Thiruppuliaazhwar, the place were Nammazhwar lived, and recite these 11 pasurams(hymns) for 12000 times. Nathamuni did as advised, and pleased with his penance, Nammazhwar granted him not only his 1000 pasurams(hymns), but the entire 4000 pasurams(hymns) of all the alvars.

Details of Pasurams

The following table shows the details of the 4000 pasurams(hymns).^[4]

Sl no	Name of the prabandham	Starting from	Ending with	Number of pasurams	Sung by
1	Periazhvar thirumozhi	1	473	473	Periyalvar
2	Thiruppavai	474	503	30	Aandaal
3	Nachiar Tirumozhi	504	646	143	Aandaal
4	Perumal thirumozhi	647	751	105	Kulasekara alvar
5	Thiruchchanda Viruththam	752	871	120	Thirumalisai alvar
6	Thirumalai	872	916	45	Thondaradippodi alvar
7	Thiruppalliyezhuchchi	917	926	10	Thondaradippodi alvar
8	Amalanadhi piran	927	936	10	Thiruppaan alvar
9	Kanni Nun Siruththambu	937	947	11	Madhurakavi Alvar
10	Peria Thirumozhi	948	2031	1084	Thirumangai alvar
11	Kurun Thandagam	2032	2051	20	Thirumangai alvar
12	Nedum Thandagam	2052	2081	30	Thirumangai alvar
13	Mudhal Thiruvandhadhi	2082	2181	100	Poigai Alvar
14	Irandam Thiruvandhadhi	2182	2281	100	Bhoothathalvar
15	Moonram Thiruvandhadhi	2282	2381	100	Peyalvar
16	Naanmugan Thiruvandhadhi	2382	2477	96	Thirumalisai alvar
17	Thiruviruththam	2478	2577	100	Nammalvar
18	Thiruvasiriyam	2578	2584	7	Nammalvar
19	Peria Thiruvandhadhi	2585	2671	87	Nammalvar
20	Thiruvezhukkurrirukkai	2672	2672	1	Thirumangai alvar
21	Siriya Thirumadal	2673	2673	1	Thirumangai alvar
22	Peria Thiru Madal	2674	2674	1	Thirumangai alvar
23	Thiruvay Mozhi	2674	3776	1102	Nammalvar
	Total number of pasurams			3776

Gherand Samhita

Gheranda Samhita (Sanskrit gheraṇḍasaṁhitā घेरंडसंहिता ) meaning “Gheranda's collection” is one of the three classic texts of hatha yoga (the other two being the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and the Shiva Samhita). It is a late 17th century text and is considered to be the most encyclopedic of the three classic texts on hatha yoga.
Gheranda Samhita is a manual of yoga taught by Gheranda to Chanda Kapali. Unlike other hatha yoga texts, the Gheranda Samhita speaks of a sevenfold yoga:

Shatkarma for purification
Asana for strengthening
Mudra for steadying
Pratyahara for calming
Pranayama for lightness
Dhyana for perception
Samādhi for isolation

The text itself follows this division in seven chapters, and has a focus upon the ṣaṭkarmas (shatkarma), thus this text is sometimes said to describe ghatastha yoga. For instance, the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali describes an eightfold path (yama and niyama instead of shatkarma and mudra, and addition of dharana). The closing stanzas on samadhi teach different methods than those described by Patanjali.

Shatkarma

Shatkarma (Sanskrit: षटकर्मन ṣaṭkarman), also known as Shatkriya^[1], refers to the Yogic practices involving purification of the body.
These practices, outlined by Yogi Swatmarama in the Haṭha Yoga Pradīpikā as kriyā, are^[1][2][3]:

Netī
Dhautī
Naulī
Basti
Kapālabhātī
Trāṭaka

More details

Netī refers to nasal wash. This is the practice of using a neti pot to cleanse the nasal passages. A basic neti wash consists of purified water and non-iodized salt, to create a gentle saline solution. A demonstration of this practice is available through the website of the Himalayan Institute.

Kapālabhātī refers to skull polishing, and is a pranayama (breathing) practice intended to energize and balance the nadis, and the chakras. Specifically, it is a sharp, short outbreath, followed by a relaxation of the core that allows the body to inhale on its own.

Naulī refers to intestinal cleansing. The practitioner stands with the feet about hip width apart, hands on knees, and body at about a 45 degree angle. The core is rotated internally by moving the abdominal muscles alternately in a clock-wise, then counterclock-wise direction.

Neti (Hatha Yoga)

Neti is an important part of Shatkarma (sometimes known as Shatkriya), the yogic system of body cleansing techniques. It is intended mainly to the cleaning of the air passageways in the head. Both the Hatha Yoga Pradipika and other sources^[1] usually attribute to Neti many beneficial effects that range from profound physiological ones on the body, mind and personality to even clairvoyance. The two main variants are jala neti using water and the more advanced sutra neti using string.

Jala neti

See also: Nasal irrigation

For this technique, lukewarm isotonic salt water is poured into one nostril, so that it leaves through the other. The procedure is then repeated on the other side, and the nose is dried by bending forward and by rapid breathing.^[2]
It is also possible to sniff the water in so that it runs into the mouth, and to spit it out. In a more advanced reverse variant, the water is taken in through the mouth and snorted out of the nose.^[2]

Sutra neti

n sutra neti, a length of wet string or thin surgical tubing is carefully and gently inserted through the nose and into the mouth. The end is then pulled out of the mouth and while holding both ends at once the string is alternately pulled in and out of the nose and sinuses. It is used to clear the nose and also to remove nasal polyps.^[2]
Sutra neti is an advanced form of yogic nasal cleansing and requires an experienced teacher. Sensations of gagging, nausea, and weakness may occur. In case of persistent blockage after jala neti, sutra neti should only be performed after a medical consultation.

Asana

Asana (Sanskrit: आसन āsana [ˈɑːsənə] 'sitting down', < आस ās 'to sit down'^[1]) is a body position, typically associated with the practice of Yoga, originally identified as a mastery of sitting still,^[2] with the spine as a conduit of biodynamic union. In the context of Yoga practice, asana refers to two things: the place where a practitioner (or yogin, in general usage), yogi (male), or yogini (female) sits and the manner (posture) in which he/she sits.^[3] In the Yoga sutras, Patanjali suggests that asana is "to be seated in a position that is firm, but relaxed" for extended, or timeless periods.^[4]
As a repertoire of postures were promoted to exercise the body-mind over the centuries, to the present day when yoga is sought as a primarily physical exercise form, modern usage has come to include variations from lying on the back and standing on the head, to a variety of other positions.^[5] However, in the Yoga sutras, Patanjali mentions the execution of sitting with a steadfast mind for extended periods as the third of the eight limbs of Classical or Raja yoga,^[6] but does not reference standing postures or kriyās. Yoga practitioners (even those who are adepts at various complex postures) who seek the "simple" practice of chair-less sitting generally find it impossible or surprisingly grueling to sit still for the traditional minimum of one hour (as still practiced in eastern Vipassana), some of them then dedicating their practice to sitting asana and the sensations and mind-states that arise and evaporate in extended sits.
Asana later became a term for various postures useful for restoring and maintain a practitioner's well-being and improve the body's flexibility and vitality, with the goal to cultivate the ability to remain in seated meditation for extended periods.^[5] Asanas are widely known as "Yoga postures" or "Yoga positions".
Yoga in the West is commonly practised as physical exercise or alternative medicine, rather than as the spiritual self-mastery meditation skill it is more associated with in the East.

Terminology

The word asana in Sanskrit does appear in many contexts denoting a static physical position, although traditional usage is specific to the practice of yoga. Traditional usage defines asana as both singular and plural. In English, plural for asana is defined as asanas. In addition, English usage within the context of yoga practice sometimes specifies yogasana or yoga asana, particularly with regard to the system of the Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. That said, yogasana is also the name of a particular posture that is not specifically associated with the Vinyasa system, and that while "ashtanga" (small 'a') refers to the eight limbs of Yoga delineated below, Ashtanga (capital 'A') refers to the specific system of Yoga developed by Sri Krishnamacharya at the Mysore Palace.
Yoga first originated in India. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali describes asana as the third of the eight limbs of classical, or Raja Yoga. Asanas are the physical movements of yoga practice and, in combination with pranayama or breathing techniques constitute the style of yoga referred to as Hatha Yoga.^[7] In the Yoga Sutra, Patanjali describes asana as a "firm, comfortable posture", referring specifically to the seated posture, most basic of all the asanas. He further suggests that meditation is the path to samādhi; transpersonal self-realization.^[8]
The eight limbs are, in order, the yamas (restrictions), niyamas (observances), asanas (postures), pranayama (breath work), pratyahara (sense withdrawal or non-attachment), dharana (concentration), dhyana (meditation), and samadhi (realization of the true Self or Atman, and unity with Brahman (The Hindu Concept of God)).^[6][8]

Common practices

In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali suggests that the only requirement for practicing asanas is that it be "steady and comfortable".^[6] The body is held poised with the practitioner experiencing no discomfort. When control of the body is mastered, practitioners are believed to free themselves from the duality of heat/cold, hunger/satiety, joy/grief, which is the first step toward the unattachment that relieves suffering.^[9] This non-dualistic perspective comes from the Sankya school of the Himalayan Masters.^[10]
Listed below are traditional practices for performing asanas:^[11][12]

The stomach should be empty.
Force or pressure should not be used, and the body should not tremble.
Lower the head and other parts of the body slowly; in particular, raised heels should be lowered slowly.
The breathing should be controlled. The benefits of asanas increase if the specific pranayama to the yoga type is performed.
If the body is stressed, perform Corpse Pose or Child Pose
Such asanas as Sukhasana or Shavasana help to reduce headaches.

Pranayama

Main article: Pranayama

Pranayama, or breath control, is the Fourth Limb of ashtanga, as set out by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutra. The practice is an integral part of both Hatha Yoga and Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga in the execution of asanas.
Patanjali discusses his specific approach to pranayama in verses 2.49 through 2.51, and devotes verses 2.52 and 2.53 of the Sutra, explaining there the benefits of the practice.^[13] Patanjali describes pranayama as the control of the enhanced "life force" that is a result of practicing the various breathing techniques, rather than the exercises themselves.^[14][15] The entirety of breathing practices includes those classified as pranayama, as well as others called svarodaya, or the "science of breath". It is a vast practice that goes far beyond the limits of pranayama as applied to asana.^[16]

Surya Namaskara

Surya Namaskara, or the Sun Salutation, which is very commonly practiced in most forms of yoga, originally evolved as a type of worship of Surya, the Vedic solar deity. Surya, the Hindu solar deity by concentrating on the Sun, for vitalization. The physical aspect of the practice 'links together' (Sanskrit: vinyāsa) twelve asanas in a dynamically expressed series. A full round of Surya namaskara is considered to be two sets of the twelve poses, with a change in the second set where the opposing leg is moved first. The asanas included in the sun salutation differ from tradition to tradition.

Benefits

The physical aspect of what is called yoga in recent years, the asanas, has been much popularized in the West. Physically, the practice of asanas is considered to:

improve flexibility^[17][18]
improve strength^[17][18]
improve balance^[17][18]
reduce stress and anxiety^[17][18]
reduce symptoms of lower back pain^[17][18]
be beneficial for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)^[17][18]
increase energy and decrease fatigue^[17][18]
shorten labor and improve birth outcomes^[18]
improve physical health and quality of life measures in the elderly^[18]
improve diabetes management^[19]
reduce sleep disturbances^[17][20]
reduce hypertension^[21][22]

The emphasis on the physical benefits of yoga, attributed to practice of the asanas, has de-emphasized the other traditional purposes of yoga which are to facilitate the flow of prana (vital energy) and to aid in balancing the koshas (sheaths) of the physical and metaphysical body.

Number of positions

In 1959, Swami Vishnu-devananda published a compilation of 66 basic postures and 136 variations of those postures.^[23] In 1975, Sri Dharma Mittra suggested that "there are an infinite number of asanas.",^[24] when he first began to catalogue the number of asanas in the Master Yoga Chart of 908 Postures, as an offering of devotion to his guru Swami Kailashananda Maharaj. He eventually compiled a list of 1300 variations, derived from contemporary gurus, yogis, and ancient and contemporary texts.^[24] This work is considered one of the primary references for asanas in the field of yoga today.^[25] His work is often mentioned in contemporary references for Iyengar Yoga, Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga, Sivananda Yoga, and other classical and contemporary texts.^[26]
In 2007, public awareness of increasing attempts to patent traditional yoga postures in the US, including 130 yoga-related patents in the US documented that year,^[27] prompted the government of India to seek clarification on the guidelines for patenting asanas from the US Patent Office.^[28][29] To clearly show that all asanas are public knowledge and therefore not patentable, in 2008, the government of India formed a team of yoga gurus, government officials, and 200 scientists from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) to register all known asanas in a public database. The team collected asanas from 35 ancient texts including the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata, the Bhagwad Gita, and Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and as of 2010, has identified 900 asanas for the database which was named the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library and made available to patent examiners.

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Introdction and Sacred Scriptures -9

Chandas – ( Vedic meter)

Principles

Classification

Dimeter forms

Traditional literature

Vedic accent

The accents

Notation

Chāndogya Upaniṣad

Commentary

Organization

First Chapter

Second Chapter

Third Chapter

Fourth Chapter

Fifth Chapter

Sixth Chapter

Seventh Chapter

Eighth Chapter

Charaka Samhita

Origins

Contents

Commentaries

Caraka Saṃhitā on nursing

Further reading

Manusmṛti

Date and Place

Context

Structure of Book

Commentaries on Manu

Devi Mahatmya

Etymology

Significance

Place in the Hindu canon

Philosophy

Contents

First Episode

Middle Episode

Final Episode

Symbolism of the three episodes

Hymns

Angās (Appendages)

Preceding subsidiary texts

Succeeding subsidiary texts

Mantra

In popular tradition

Devi-Bhagavata Purana

Origin

Contents

Divya Prabandha

Compilation

Details of Pasurams

Gherand Samhita

Shatkarma

More details

Neti (Hatha Yoga)

Jala neti

Sutra neti

Asana

Terminology

Common practices

Pranayama

Surya Namaskara

Benefits

Number of positions

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