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While significant attempts have been made recently to identify the exact locations of the individual Upanishads, the results are tentative. Witzel identifies the center of activity in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as the area of Videha, whose king, Janaka, features prominently in the Upanishad. Yajnavalkya is another individual who features prominently, almost as the personal theologian of Janaka.[77] Brahmins of the central region of Kuru-Panchala rightly considered their land as the place of the best theological and literary activities, since this was the heartland of Brahmanism of the late Vedic period. The setting of the third and the fourth chapters of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishads were probably intended to show that Yajnavalkya of Videha defeated all the best theologians of the Kuru Panchala, thereby demonstrating the rise of Videha as a center of learning. The Chandogya Upanishad was probably composed in a more Western than an Eastern location, possibly somewhere in the western region of the Kuru-Panchala country.[78] The great Kuru-Panchala theologian Uddalaka Aruni who was vilified in the Brihadaranyaka features prominently in the Chandogya Upanishad. Compared to the Principal Upanishads, the new Upanishads recorded in the Muktikā belong to an entirely different region, probably southern India, and are considerably relatively recent.[16]
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan claims that most of the Upanishads were kept secret for centuries, only passed on to others orally in the form of Shloka, and that it difficult to determine how much the current texts have changed from the original.[43]
Development of thought
While the hymns of the Vedas emphasize rituals and the Brahmanas serve as a liturgical manual for those Vedic rituals, the spirit of the Upanishads is inherently opposed to ritual.[79] The older Upanishads launch attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Chāndogya Upanishad parodies those who indulge in the acts of sacrifice by comparing them with a procession of dogs chanting Om! Let's eat. Om! Let's drink. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.[79]The opposition to the ritual is not explicit all the time. On several occasions the Upanishads extend the task of the Aranyakas by making the ritual allegorical and giving it a philosophical meaning. For example, the Brihadaranyaka interprets the practice of horse-sacrifice or ashvamedha allegorically. It states that the over-lordship of the earth may be acquired by sacrificing a horse. It then goes on to say that spiritual autonomy can only be achieved by renouncing the universe which is conceived in the image of a horse.[79]
In similar fashion, the pattern of reducing the number of gods in the Vedas becomes more emphatic in the Upanishads. When Yajnavalkaya is asked how many gods exist, he decrements the number successively by answering thirty-three, six, three, two, one and a half and finally one. Vedic gods such as the Rudras, Visnu, Brahma are gradually subordinated to the supreme, immortal and incorporeal Brahman of the Upanishads. In fact Indra and the supreme deity of the Brahamanas, Prajapati, are made door keepers to the Brahman's residence in the Kausitaki Upanishad.[79]
In short, the one reality or ekam sat of the Vedas becomes the ekam eva a-dvitiyam or "the one and only and sans a second" in the Upanishads.[79]
Worldwide transmission
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan claims that translation often requires difficult research and subjective choices because most of the Upanishads were written in an old Sanskrit (comparable to Old Latin), which is no longer spoken and has a complicated sentence structure.[43]However, the Upanishads have still influenced world culture in part through later Hindu texts, such as the Bhagavad Gītā, which Radhakrishnan says conveyed a "message based on the ancient wisdom, prajñā purāņī, of the Upaniṣads."[80]:13 The Gītā Dhyānam, a 9-verse poetic invocation that is often published with the Gītā,[81] celebrates the purported Upanishadic influence in a famous verse stating that "The Upaniṣads are the cows... and the nectar-like gitā is the excellent milk."[80]:13
Given that Indian Brahmin seers are reputed to have visited Greece, it may be that the Upanishadic sages influenced Ancient Greek philosophy.[82] Many ideas in Plato's Dialogues, particularly, have Indian analogues – several concepts in the Platonic psychology of reason bear resemblance to the gunas of Indian philosophy. Professor Edward Johns Urwick conjectures that The Republic owes several central concepts to Indian influence.[82][83] Garb and West have also concluded that this was due to Indian influence.[84][85]
A. R. Wadia dissents in that Plato's metaphysics were rooted in this life,[82] the primary aim being an ideal state. He later proposed a state less ordered but more practicable and conducive to human happiness. As for the Upanishadic thinkers, their goal was not an ideal state or society, but moksha or deliverance from the endless cycle of birth and death. Wadia concludes that there was no exchange of information and ideas between Plato and the Upanishadic thinkers: Plato remains Greek and the Indian sages remain Indian.[82]
The Upanishads were a part of an oral tradition. Their study was confined to the higher castes of Indian society.[86] Sudras and women were not given access to them soon after their composition. The Upanishads have been translated in to various languages including Persian, Italian, Urdu, French, Latin, German, English, Dutch, Polish, Japanese and Russian.[87] The Moghul Emperor Akbar's reign (1556–1586) saw the first translations of the Upanishads into Persian,[88][89] and his great-grandson, Dara Shikoh, produced a collection called Sirr-e-Akbar (The Greatest Mysteries) in 1657, with the help of Sanskrit Pandits of Varanasi. Its introduction stated that the Upanishads constitute the Qur'an's "Kitab al-maknun" or hidden book.[90] But Akbar's and Sikoh's translations remained unnoticed in the Western world until 1775.[88]
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron, a French Orientalist who had lived in India between 1755 and 1761, received a manuscript of the Upanishads in 1775 from M. Gentil, and translated it into French and Latin, publishing the Latin translation in two volumes in 1802–1804 as Oupneck'hat.[91] The French translation was never published.[92] The first German translation appeared in 1832 and Roer's English version appeared in 1853. However, Max Mueller's 1879 and 1884 editions were the first systematic English treatment to include the 12 Principal Upanishads.[87] After this, the Upanishads were rapidly translated into Dutch, Polish, Japanese and Russian.
Global scholarship and praise
Association with Vedas
All Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas—Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda (there are two primary versions or Samhitas of the Yajurveda: Shukla Yajurveda, Krishna Yajurveda), and Atharvaveda. The Muktikā Upanishad's list of 108 Upanishads groups the first 10 as mukhya, 21 as Sāmānya Vedānta, 23 as Sannyāsa, nine as Shākta, 13 as Vaishnava, 14 as Shaiva and 17 as Yoga.[106] The 108 Upanishads as recorded in the Muktikā are shown in the table below.[107][108] The mukhya Upanishads are highlighted.|
Veda-Upanishad association
|
|||||||
|
Veda
|
Mukhya
|
Sāmānya
|
Sannyāsa
|
Śākta
|
Vaiṣṇava
|
Śaiva
|
Yoga
|
|
Ṛigveda
|
Aitareya
|
Kauśītāki, Ātmabodha, Mudgala
|
Nirvāṇa
|
Tripura, Saubhāgya,
Bahvṛca
|
-
|
Akṣamālika (Mālika)
|
Nādabindu
|
|
Samaveda
|
Chāndogya, Kena
|
Vajrasūchi, Mahad,
Sāvitrī
|
Āruṇeya, Maitrāyaṇi,
Maitreyi, Sannyāsa, Kuṇḍika
|
-
|
Vāsudeva, Avyakta
|
Rudrākṣa, Jābāla
|
Yogachūḍāmaṇi, Darśana
|
|
Krishna Yajurveda
|
Taittirīya,
Śvetāśvatara, Kaṭha
|
Sarvasāra,
Śukarahasya, Skanda (Tripāḍvibhūṭi), Śārīraka, Ekākṣara, Akṣi, Prāṇāgnihotra
|
Brahma,
Śvetāśvatara, Garbha, Tejobindu, Avadhūta, Kaṭharudra, Varāha
|
Sarasvatīrahasya
|
Nārāyaṇa (Mahānārāyaṇa), Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa (Kali)
|
Kaivalya,
Kālāgnirudra, Dakṣiṇāmūrti, Rudrahṛdaya, Pañcabrahma
|
Amṛtabindu, Amṛtanāda, Kṣurika, Dhyānabindu, Brahmavidyā, Yogatattva, Yogaśikhā,
Yogakuṇḍalini
|
|
Shukla Yajurveda
|
Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Īśa
|
Subāla, Mantrikā,
Nirālamba, Paiṅgala, Adhyātmā,
Muktikā
|
Jābāla, Paramahaṃsa, Advayatāraka, Bhikṣu, Turīyātīta,
Yājñavalkya, Śāṭyāyani
|
-
|
Tārasāra
|
-
|
Haṃsa, Triśikhi, Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa
|
|
Atharvaveda
|
Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna
|
Sūrya, Ātmā
|
Parivrāt
(Nāradaparivrājaka), Paramahaṃsaparivrājaka,
Parabrahma
|
Sītā, Annapūrṇa, Devī, Tripurātapani, Bhāvana
|
Nṛsiṃhatāpanī, Mahānārāyaṇa (Tripādvibhuti), Rāmarahasya, Rāmatāpaṇi, Gopālatāpani, Kṛṣṇa, Hayagrīva,
Dattātreya, Gāruḍa
|
Śira, Atharvaśikha,
Bṛhajjābāla, Śarabha, Bhasma, Gaṇapati
|
Śāṇḍilya, Pāśupata, Mahāvākya
|
Bhagavad Gita
listen)), also referred to as Gita, is a 700–verse Dharmic
scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit
epic Mahabharata.
This scripture contains a conversation between Pandava
prince Arjuna
and his guide Krishna
on a variety of philosophical issues.Faced with a fratricidal war, a despondent Arjuna turns to his charioteer Krishna for counsel on the battlefield. Krishna, through the course of the Gita, imparts to Arjuna wisdom, the path to devotion, and the doctrine of selfless action.[1] The Gita upholds the essence and the philosophical tradition of the Upanishads.[2] However, unlike the rigorous monism of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita also integrates dualism and theism.
Numerous commentaries have been written on the Bhagavad Gita with widely differing views on the essentials, beginning with Adi Sankara's commentary on the Gita in the eighth century CE. Commentators see the setting of the Gita in a battlefield as an allegory for the ethical and moral struggles of the human life. The Bhagavad Gita's call for selfless action inspired many leaders of the Indian independence movement including Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who referred to the Gita as his "spiritual dictionary"
Composition and significance
The epic Mahabharata
is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyasa; the Bhagavad Gita,
being a part of the Mahabharata, is also ascribed to him.[3]
Theories on the date of composition of the Gita vary considerably. Scholars
accept dates from fifth century to second century BCE as the probable range.
Professor Jeaneane Fowler, in her commentary on the Gita, considers second
century BCE to be the likely date of composition.[4]
Kashi Nath Upadhyaya, a Gita scholar, on the basis of the estimated dates of
Mahabharata, Brahma sutras, and other independent sources, concludes that
the Bhagavad Gita was composed between fifth and fourth centuries BCE.[5]
The actual dates of composition of the Gita remain unresolved.
Due to its presence in the Mahabharata, Bhagavad Gita is classified as a Smṛiti text or "that which is remembered". Śruti texts, such as the Upanishads, are believed to be revelations of divine origin, whereas Smṛitis are authored recollections of tradition and are therefore fallible. As a Smṛiti, the scriptural authority of the Gita is dependent on the Upanishads (Śruti).[1] However, those branches of Hinduism that give it the status of an Upanishad also consider it to be a Śruti or "revealed text".[11][12] Even though the Bhagavad Gita is in many respects different from the Upanishads in format and content,[1] it is still taken to represent a summary of the Upanishadic teachings and is thus called "the Upanishad of the Upanishads."[13] Advaita Vedanta (monistic conclusion of the Vedas) school of philosophy uses the Bhagavad Gita in conjunction with the Upanishads and Brahma sutras to arrive at its message of non-duality.
Content
Background
In the epic Mahabharata, Sanjaya, counsellor of the Kuru king Dhritarashtra, after returning from the battlefield to announce the death of Bhisma begins recounting the details of the Mahabharata war. Bhagavad Gita forms the content of this recollection.[15] The Gita begins before the start of the climactic Kurukshetra war, where the Pandava prince Arjuna is filled with doubt on the battlefield. Realizing that his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers, he turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince, elaborating on a variety of philosophical concepts.[1]Characters
- Arjuna, of the Pandavas
- Krishna, Arjuna's charioteer and guru
- Sanjaya, counsellor of the Kuru king Dhritarashtra
- Dhritarashtra, Kuru king.
Overview of chapters
The Bhagavad Gita is divided into eighteen chapters.[16] The Sanskrit editions of the Gita name each chapter as a particular form of yoga. However, these chapter titles do not appear in the Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata.[8] Swami Chidbhavananda explains that each of the eighteen chapters is designated as a separate yoga because each chapter, like yoga, "trains the body and the mind". He labels the first chapter "Arjuna Vishada Yogam" or the "Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection".
Gita Dhyanam: (contains 9 verses) The Gita Dhyanam is not a part
of the main Bhagavad Gita, but it is commonly published with the Gītā as a
prefix. The verses of the Gita Dhyanam (also called Gītā Dhyāna
or Dhyāna Ślokas) offer salutations to a variety of sacred scriptures,
figures, and entities, characterise the relationship of the Gītā to the
Upanishads, and affirm the power of divine assistance.[18]
It is a common practice to recite these before reading the Gita.[19][20]
- Arjuna–Visada yoga: (contains 46 verses) Arjuna has requested Krishna to move his chariot between the two armies. His growing dejection is described as he fears losing friends and relatives as a consequence of war.[21]
- Sankhya yoga: (contains 72 verses) After asking Krishna for help, Arjuna is instructed into various subjects such as, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga, Sankhya yoga, Buddhi yoga and the immortal nature of the soul. This chapter is often considered the summary of the entire Bhagavad Gita.[22]
- Karma yoga: (contains 43 verses) Krishna explains how performance of prescribed duties, but without attachment to results, is the appropriate course of action for Arjuna.[23]
- Jnana–Karma-Sanyasa yoga: (contains 42 verses) Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious and stresses the importance of accepting a guru.[24]
- Karma–Sanyasa yoga: (contains 29 verses) Arjuna asks Krishna if it is better to forgo action or to act ("renunciation or discipline of action).[25] Krishna answers that both are ways to the same goal,[26] but that acting in Karma yoga is superior.
- Dhyan yoga or Atmasanyam yoga: (contains 47 verses) Krishna describes the Ashtanga yoga. He further elucidates the difficulties of the mind and the techniques by which mastery of the mind might be gained.[27]
- Jnana–Vijnana yoga: (contains 30 verses) Krishna describes the absolute reality and its illusory energy Maya.[28]
- Aksara–Brahma yoga: (contains 28 verses) This chapter contains eschatology of the Bhagavad Gita. Importance of the last thought before death, differences between material and spiritual worlds, and light and dark paths that a soul takes after death are described.[29]
- Raja–Vidya–Raja–Guhya yoga: (contains 34 verses) Krishna explains how His eternal energy pervades, creates, preserves, and destroys the entire universe.[30] According to theologian Christopher Southgate, verses of this chapter of the Gita are panentheistic.[31]
- Vibhuti–Vistara–yoga: (contains 42 verses) Krishna is described as the ultimate cause of all material and spiritual existence. Arjuna accepts Krishna as the Supreme Being, quoting great sages who have also done so.
Visvarupa–Darsana
yoga: (contains 55 verses) On Arjuna's request, Krishna displays his
"universal form" (Viśvarūpa),[33]
a theophany
of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns,
containing all other beings and material in existence.
Bhakti
yoga: (contains 20 verses) In this chapter Krishna glorifies the path of
devotion to God. Krishna describes the process of devotional service (Bhakti yoga).
He also explains different forms of spiritual disciplines.[34]
Ksetra–Ksetrajna
Vibhaga yoga: (contains 35 verses) The difference between transient
perishable physical body and the immutable eternal soul is described. The
difference between individual consciousness and universal consciousness is also
made clear.[35]
Gunatraya–Vibhaga
yoga: (contains 27 verses) Krishna explains the three modes (gunas) of material nature
pertaining to goodness, passion, and nescience. Their causes, characteristics,
and influence on a living entity are also described.[36]
Purusottama
yoga: (contains 20 verses) Krishna identifies the transcendental
characteristics of God such as, omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence.[37]
Krishna also describes a symbolic tree (representing material existence), which
has its roots in the heavens and its foliage on earth. Krishna explains that
this tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment", after which
one can go beyond to his supreme abode.
Daivasura–Sampad–Vibhaga
yoga: (contains 24 verses) Krishna identifies the human traits of the
divine and the demonic natures. He counsels that to attain the supreme
destination one must give up lust, anger, greed, and discern between right and
wrong action by discernment through Buddhi and evidence from the scriptures.[38]
Sraddhatraya-Vibhaga
yoga: (contains 28 verses) Krishna qualifies the three divisions of
faith, thoughts, deeds, and even eating habits corresponding to the three modes
(gunas).[39]
Moksha–Sanyasa
yoga: (contains 78 verses) In this chapter, the conclusions of previous
seventeen chapters are summed up. Krishna asks Arjuna to abandon all forms of
dharma and simply surrender unto him and describes this as the ultimate
perfection of life
Themes
Dharma
Main article: Dharma
The first reference to dharma in the
Bhagavad Gita occurs in its first verse, where Dhritarashtra refers to the
Kurukshetra as the 'Field of dharma'. Fowler believes, that dharma
in this verse refers to the sanatana dharma
or the eternal order which pervades the whole cosmos and is ultimately true and
right. Therefore, 'Field of action' implies the field of righteousness, where
truth will eventually triumph. However, both Sri Aurobindo,
a freedom fighter and philosopher, and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, a philosopher and the
second president of India, see the 'Field of action' as the world, which is a
"battleground for moral struggle".[41]Early in the text, responding to Arjuna's despondency, Krishna asks him to follow his swadharma. Swadharma literally means work born out of one's nature and in this verse, is often interpreted as the varna dharma or in the case of Arjuna, the duty of a warrior. Eighteenth chapter of the Gita examines the relationship between swadharma and swabhava or essential nature. In this chapter, the swadharma of an individual is linked with the guṇas or tendencies arising out of one's swabhava. The idea that an individual's dharma was based on their essential nature allowed Aurobindo to deduce his doctrine that "the functions of a man ought to be determined by his natural turn, gift, and capacities". Gandhi found in the concept of swadharma, the basis for his idea of swadeshi. To him, swadeshi was "swadharma applied to one's immediate environment".[42]
Moksha: Liberation
Main article: Moksha
Liberation or moksha in Vedanta
philosophy is not something that can be acquired or reached. Ātman (Self), the goal of moksha, is
something that is always present as the essence of the self, and can be
revealed by deep intuitive knowledge. While the Upanishads largely uphold such
a monistic viewpoint of liberation, the Bhagavad Gita also accommodates the
dualistic and theistic aspects of moksha. The Gita, while occasionally
hinting at impersonal Brahman as the goal, revolves around the
relationship between the Self and a personal God or Saguna Brahman.
A synthesis of knowledge, devotion, and desireless action is given as a
prescription for Arjuna's despondence; the same combination is suggested as a
way to moksha.[43]
Winthrop Sargeant further explains, "In
the model presented by the Bhagavad Gītā, every aspect of life is in
fact a way of salvation.Allegory of war
Swami Vivekananda also emphasised that the first discourse in the Gita related to the war could be taken allegorically.[51] Vivekananda further remarked, "this Kurukshetra War is only an allegory. When we sum up its esoteric significance, it means the war which is constantly going on within man between the tendencies of good and evil."[52] In Aurobindo's view, Krishna was a historical figure, but his significance in the Gita is as a "symbol of the divine dealings with humanity",[53] while Arjuna typifies a "struggling human soul."[54] However, Aurobindo rejected the interpretation that the Gita, and the Mahabharata by extension, is "an allegory of the inner life, and has nothing to do with our outward human life and actions":
[...That is a view which the general character and the actual language of the epic does not justify and, if pressed, would turn the straightforward philosophical language of the Gita into a constant, laborious and somewhat puerile mystification....the Gita is written in plain terms and professes to solve the great ethical and spiritual difficulties which the life of man raises, and it will not do to go behind this plain language and thought and wrest them to the service of our fancy. But there is this much of truth in the view, that the setting of the doctrine though not symbolical, is certainly typical According to Vivekananda, "If one reads this one Shloka — one gets all the merits of reading the entire Gita; for in this one Shloka lies imbedded the whole Message of the Gita.
Swami Krishnananda regards the characters and the circumstances depicted in the Bhagavad Gita as symbolic of various moods, vicissitudes, and facets of human life.[56] He highlights the universal applicability of the Gita to human life by saying that "It is not the story of some people that lived sometime ago but a characterisation of all people that may live at any time in the history of the world."[57] Swami Chinmayananda writes, "Here in the Bhagavad Gita, we find a practical handbook of instruction on how best we can re-organise our inner ways of thinking, feeling, and acting in our everyday life and draw from ourselves a larger gush of productivity to enrich the life around us, and to emblazon the subjective life within us."[58]
Yoga
Yoga in the Bhagavad Gita refers to the skill of union with the ultimate reality or the Absolute.[59] Sivananda's commentary regards the eighteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita as having a progressive order, by which Krishna leads "Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another."[60] The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati divided the Gita's eighteen chapters into three sections of six chapters each. Swami Gambhirananda characterises Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga:[61][62]- Chapters 1–6 = Karma yoga, the means to the final goal
- Chapters 7–12 = Bhakti yoga or devotion
- Chapters 13–18 = Jnana yoga or knowledge, the goal itself
Karma yoga
Main article: Karma yoga
Fowler thinks that it is impossible for living
beings to avoid action all together, the Bhagavad Gita therefore offers a
practical approach to liberation in the form of Karma yoga. The path of Karma
yoga upholds the necessity of action. However, this action is to be undertaken
without any attachment to the work or desire for results. Bhagavad Gita terms
this "inaction in action and action in inaction (4.18)". The concept
of such detached action is also called Nishkam Karma,
a term not used in the Gita.[63]
Krishna, in the following verses, elaborates on the role actions, performed
without desire and attachment, play in attaining freedom from material bondage
and transmigration:
To action alone hast
thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be
thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction
Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga. (2.47-8)[64]
Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga. (2.47-8)[64]
With the body, with the
mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action
toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in
Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace. (5.11)[65]
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi writes, "The
object of the Gita appears to me to be that of showing the most excellent way
to attain self-realization" and this can be achieved by selfless action,
"By desireless action; by renouncing fruits of action; by dedicating all
activities to God, i.e., by surrendering oneself to Him body and soul."
Gandhi called Gita, The Gospel of Selfless Action.[66]
In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental
desires and tendencies to enjoy sense pleasures. The following verses
illustrate this:[67]
When a man dwells in
his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From
attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger.
From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes"(2.62-3)
From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes"(2.62-3)
Bhakti yoga
The introduction to chapter seven of the Bhagavad Gita explains bhakti as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God. Faith (Śraddhā) and total surrender to a chosen God (Ishta-deva) are considered to be important aspects of bhakti.[68] Theologian Catherine Cornille writes, "The text [of the Gita] offers a survey of the different possible disciplines for attaining liberation through knowledge (jnana), action (karma), and loving devotion to God (bhakti), focusing on the latter as both the easiest and the highest path to salvation."[69] M. R. Sampatkumaran, a Bhagavad Gita scholar, explains in his overview of Ramanuja's commentary on the Gita, "The point is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release. Devotion, meditation, and worship are essential."[70] Ramakrishna believed that the essential message of the Gita could be obtained by repeating the word Gita several times,[71] "'Gita, Gita, Gita', you begin, but then find yourself saying 'ta-Gi, ta-Gi, ta-Gi'. Tagi means one who has renounced everything for God." In the following verses, Krishna elucidates the importance of bhakti:
And of all yogins, he
who full of faith worships Me, with his inner self abiding in Me, him, I hold
to be the most attuned (to me in Yoga). (6.47)[72]
... those who,
renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me...
For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the
ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your
intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter. (12.6)[73]
Radhakrishnan writes that the verse 11.55 is
"the essence of bhakti" and the "substance of the whole teaching
of the Gita":[74]
He who does work for
Me, he who looks upon Me as his goal, he who worships Me, free from attachment,
who is free from enmity to all creatures, he goes to Me, O Pandava.
The Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Puranas[2] are important scriptures which expound the philosophy of Bhakti.[3] Hindu movements in which bhakti is the main practice are called bhakti movements—the major schools are Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.
Philosophy
Bhakti is a Sanskrit term that signifies an attitude of devotion to a personal God that is similar to a number of human-human relationships (difference is that in bhakti relationships is soul-Supersoul, soul-God) such as beloved-lover, friend-friend, parent-child, and master-servant.[3]The Bhagavata Purana teaches nine primary forms of bhakti, as explained by Prahlada:[5]
(1) śravaṇa ("listening" to the scriptural stories of Kṛṣṇa and his companions), (2) kīrtana ("praising," usually refers to ecstatic group singing), (3) smaraṇa ("remembering" or fixing the mind on Viṣṇu), (4) pāda-sevana (rendering service), (5) arcana (worshiping an image), (6) vandana (paying homage), (7) dāsya (servitude), (8) sākhya (friendship), and (9) ātma-nivedana(complete surrender of the self). (from Bhagata Purana, 7.5.23-24)
These nine principles of devotional service are described as helping the devotee remain constantly in touch with God. The processes of japa and internal meditation on the aspirant devotees's chosen deity form (ishta deva) are especially popular in most bhakti schools. Bhakti is a yoga path, in that its aim is a form of divine, loving union with the Supreme Lord. The exact form of the Lord, or type of union varies between the different schools, but the essence of each process is very similar.
The Indian spiritual teacher Meher Baba states, "Out of a number of practices which lead to the ultimate goal of humanity – God-Realization – Bhakti Yoga is one of the most important. Almost the whole of humanity is concerned with Bhakti Yoga, which, in simple words, means the art of worship. But it must be understood in all its true aspects, and not merely in a narrow and shallow sense, in which the term is commonly used and interpreted. The profound worship based on the high ideals of philosophy and spirituality, prompted by divine love, doubtless constitutes true Bhakti Yoga.
Jnana yoga
When a sensible man
ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees
how beings are expanded everywhere, he attains to the Brahman
conception. (13.31)[76]
Those who see with
eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body,
and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material
nature, attain to the supreme goal.
As used in the Bhagavad Gita, the Advaita philosopher Adi Shankara gave primary importance to jñāna yoga as "knowledge of the absolute" (Brahman), while the Vishishtadvaita commentator Ramanuja regarded knowledge only as a condition of devotion.[3] In the Bhagavad Gita (13.3) Krishna says that jñāna consists of properly understanding kshetra (the field of activity--that is, the body) and kshetra-jna (the knower of the body--that is, the soul). Later in the Gita (13.35) Krishna emphasizes that a transcendentalist must understand the difference between these two.[4] Sri Ganapatrao Maharaj Kannur emphasizes the significance of knowing self so as to know the supreme and that it is essential to vanquish the ego and the identification with the body
Classification of means
Jñāna yoga teaches that there are four means to liberation:[5]- Viveka - Discrimination: The ability to differentiate between what is real/eternal (Brahman) and what is unreal/temporal (everything else in the universe.) This was an important concept in texts older even than the Bhagavad Gita, and often invoked the image of a Swan, which was said to be able to separate milk (or Soma) from water, whilst drinking.
- Vairagya - Dispassion: After practice one should be able to "detach" her/himself from everything that is "temporary."
- Shad-sampat - The 6 Virtues: Sama-Tranquility (control of the mind), Dama (control of the senses), Uparati (cessation/renunciation of activities that are not duties), Titiksha (endurance), Shraddha (faith), Samadhana (perfect concentration).
- Mumukshutva - Intensely focused longing for moksha, liberation from temporal entanglements that bind one to the cycle of death and rebirth.
Influence
Main article: Influence of Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita has been highly praised not
only by prominent Indians such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi but also by Aldous Huxley,
Henry David Thoreau, Albert Einstein,
J. Robert Oppenheimer,[78]
Ralph Waldo Emerson, Carl Jung,
and Herman Hesse.[13][79]
The Gita's emphasis on selfless service was a prime source of inspiration for
Gandhi,[66]
who said "When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face,
and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to Bhagavad-Gita and find
a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of
overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of external tragedies and if they
have not left any visible or invisible effect on me, I owe it to the teaching
of the Bhagavad Gita."[80]
Other instances of the Gita's influence include:- Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, commented on the Gita, "The Bhagavad-Gita deals essentially with the spiritual foundation of human existence. It is a call of action to meet the obligations and duties of life; yet keeping in view the spiritual nature and grander purpose of the universe."[81]
- J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project, learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Upon witnessing the world's first nuclear test in 1945, he later said he had thought of the quotation "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds", verse 32 from chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.[78][82]
- Albert Einstein praised philosophical insights of Gita[83].
- A 2006 report suggests that the Gita is replacing the influence of The Art of War (ascendant in the 1980s and '90s) in the Western business community.[84]
Commentaries
Classical commentaries
Bhagavad Gita integrates various schools of thought like Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and other theistic schools. Therefore, it remains a popular text for commentators belonging to various philosophical schools. However, its composite nature also leads to varying interpretations of the text. In the words of Mysore Hiriyanna, "[The Gita] is one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous commentaries on it – each differing from the rest in one essential point or the other."[85]Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and passages signify, and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the Vedanta school[86] of extreme "non-dualism", Adi Shankara (788–820 A. D.),[87] also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: Śaṅkarācārya).[88] Shankara's commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and that recension has been widely adopted by others.[89] Ramanujacharya's commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation.[90] Madhva, a commentator of the Vedanta school,[91] whose dates are given either as (1199–1276 CE)[92] or as (1238–1317 CE),[44] also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: Madhvācārya), wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, which exemplifies the thinking of the "dualist" school.[88] Winthrop Sargeant quotes a dualistic assertion of the Madhva's school that there is "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many souls, and matter and its divisions."[44] His commentary on the Gita is called Gita Bhāshya. It has been annotated on by many ancient pontiffs of Dvaita Vedanta school like Padmanabha Tirtha, Jayatirtha, and Raghavendra Tirtha.[93]
In the Shaiva tradition,[94] the renowned philosopher Abhinavagupta (10–11th century CE) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha. Other classical commentators include Nimbarka (1162 CE), Vidyadhiraja Tirtha, Vallabha(1479 CE)., Madhusudana Saraswati, Raghavendra Tirtha, Vanamali Mishra, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 CE),[95] while Dnyaneshwar (1275–1296 CE) translated and commented on the Gita in Marathi, in his book Dnyaneshwari.[96]
Independence movement
At a time when Indian nationalists were seeking an indigenous basis for social and political action, Bhagavad Gita provided them with a rationale for their activism and fight against injustice.[97] Among nationalists, notable commentaries were written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, who used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.[98][99] Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910–1911 serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition.[100] While noting that the Gita teaches possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.[101] No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary".[102] During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929,[102] Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a foreword by Gandhi in 1946.[103][104] Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:"I find a solace in the Bhagavadgītā that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavadgītā. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies – and my life has been full of external tragedies – and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavadgītā. ”
Other modern commentaries
Among notable modern commentators of the Bhagavad Gita are Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Chinmayananda who took a syncretistic approach to the text.[107][108] Eknath Easwaran has also written a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. It examines the applicability of the principles of Gita, to the problems of modern life.[109] Other notable commentators include Jeaneane Fowler and Ithamar Theodor.[110]Kathryn A. Johnson has focused on emotions and morals found in the text. She concluded that the text is redacted, or has been edited over time. This is based on the overall inconsistencies in emotion, goals, virtue ethics, actions, and the identity of Krishna throughout the story
Hindu revivalism and Neo-Hindu movements
Although Vivekananda
did not write any commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita, his works contained
numerous references to the Gita, such as his lectures on the four yogas –
Bhakti, Jnana, Karma, and Raja.[112]
Through the message of the Gita, Vivekananda sought to energise the people of
India to claim their own dormant but strong identity.[113]
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay thought that
the answer to the problems that beset Hindu society was a revival of Hinduism
in its purity, which lay in the reinterpretation of Bhagavad Gita for a new
India.[114]
Aurobindo saw Bhagavad Gita as a "scripture of the future religion"
and suggested that Hinduism had acquired a much wider relevance through the
Gita.[115]
Sivananda called Bhagavad Gita "the most precious jewel of Hindu
literature" and suggested its introduction into the curriculum of Indian
schools and colleges.[116]
In the lectures Chinmayananda gave, on tours undertaken to revive of moral and
spiritual values of the Hindus, he borrowed the concept of jnana yajna,
or the worship to invoke divine wisdom, from the Gita.[117]
He viewed the Gita as a universal scripture to turn a person from a state of
agitation and confusion to a state of complete vision, inner contentment, and
dynamic action. Teachings of International Society for
Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), a Gaudiya Vasihnava religious organisation which
spread rapidly in North America in 1970s and 1980s, are based on a translation
of the Gita called Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is.
Scholarly translations
The Gita has also been translated into other European languages. In 1808, passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which Friedrich Schlegel became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany.[125] Swami Rambhadracharya released the first Braille version of the scripture, with the original Sanskrit text and a Hindi commentary, on 30 November 2007.
Puranas
The Puranas (Sanskrit: पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times") are a genre of important Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religious texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.[1]Puranas usually give prominence to a particular deity, employing an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts. They are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another. The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a traveling Brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective).
Origins
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is traditionally considered the compiler of the Puranas.[2] However, the earliest written versions date from the time of the Gupta Empire (third-fifth century CE) and much material may be dated, through historical references and other means, to this period and the succeeding centuries. The texts were probably written all over India.The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas.[3] On one hand, they existed in some oral form before being written[3] while at the same time, they have been incrementally modified well into the 16th century.[3][4]
An early reference is found in the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2). (circa 500 BCE). The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad refers to purana as the "fifth Veda",[5] itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ, reflecting the early religious importance of these myths, presumably then in purely oral form. Importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24.[6][7]
According to Pargiter,[6] the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas. Gavin Flood connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in the Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults.[8] Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas. She dates Markandeya Purana to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550 CE), Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c. 350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c. 450 CE, Brahmanda Purana to c. 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c. 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. 600–1000 CE.[9]
Common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.[8]
The All India Kashiraj Trust, formed under Vibhuti Narayan Singh, the Maharaja of Kashi, dedicated itself to publishing editions of the Puranas.[10]
Content
According to Matysa Purana,[11] they are said to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana pañcalakṣaṇa(Sanskrit:Template:Sanskrit) ("five distinguishing marks", though some scholars have suggested that these are shared by other traditional religious scriptures):[12][13]- Sarga: the creation of the universe.
- Pratisarga: secondary creations, mostly recreations after dissolution.
- Vamśa: genealogy of the gods and sages.
- Manvañtara: the creation of the human race and the first human beings. The epoch of the Manus' rule, 71 celestial Yugas or 308,448,000 years.
- Vamśānucaritam: the histories of the patriarchs of the lunar and solar dynasties.
The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas. These are always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though in fact they are not always counted in the same way. Combining the various lists Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen have collated twenty names:[18]|
Purana name
|
Verses number
|
Comments
|
|
15,400 verses
|
Contains details of
Vastu Shastra and Gemology.
|
|
|
18,000 verses
|
Indologist Ludo
Rocher considers it to be the most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,[19][20]
telling of Vishnu's ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of
Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many
Bhakti movements.[21]
|
|
|
14,500 verses
|
Contains a record of
prophecies. Portions of the extant text are drawn from the law book of Manu.[22]
|
|
|
10,000 verses
|
Describes the Godavari
and its tributaries. It is shortest of the Puranas.
|
|
|
12,000 verses
|
Includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus
recite as prayer.
|
|
|
17,000 verses
|
Describes ways to
worship Devis,
Krishna and Ganesha.
|
|
|
19,000 verses
|
Describes death and
its aftermaths.
|
|
|
16,000 verses
|
Is considered to be itihāsa
(epic poetry).
|
|
|
17,000 verses
|
|
|
|
11,000 verses
|
Describes the magnificence
of Lingam,
symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe. It also contains many stories of
Lingam one of which entails how Agni Lingam solved dispute between Vishnu and
Brahma.
|
|
|
9,000 verses
|
The Devi Mahatmya,
an important text for the Shaktas, is embedded in it.
|
|
|
14,000 verses
|
||
|
25,000 verses
|
||
|
55,000 verses
|
Describes the
greatness of Bhagavad Gita. Hence, it is also known as
gītāmāhātmya (lit. the majesty of Gita).
|
|
|
24,000 verses
|
Describes the
greatness of Shiva, greatness in worshiping Shiva and other stories about him.
|
|
|
81,100 verses
|
Describes the birth
of Skanda (or Karthikeya), second son of Shiva. The longest Purana, it is an
extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing geographical
locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables,
hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.[24]
|
|
|
10,000 verses
|
Describes areas
around Kurukshetra
in North India.
|
|
|
24,000 verses
|
||
|
24,000 verses
|
|
|
|
23,000 verses
|
Describes the many
mythic deeds of Vishnu and various ways to worship him.[26]
|
Classification
Puranas are classified according to qualification of persons who can understand them: "Purāṇas are supplementary explanations of the Vedas intended for different types of men. All men are not equal. There are men who are conducted by the mode of goodness, others who are under the mode of passion and others who are under the mode of ignorance. The Purāṇas are so divided that any class of men can take advantage of them and gradually regain their lost position and get out of the hard struggle for existence."[27]The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti[28]:
|
Vaiṣṇava Puranas:
|
|
|
Brāhma
Puranas:
|
|
|
Śaiva
Puranas:
|
According to the Padma Purana,[30] the texts may be classified in accordance with the three gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and indifference:
|
Sattva
("truth; purity")
|
|
|
Rajas
("dimness; passion")
|
|
|
Tamas ("darkness; ignorance")
|
The Upapuranas
Main article: Upapurana
The Upapurāṇas are lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also
said to be eighteen in number, with still less agreement as to the canonical
titles. Few have been critically edited. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha,
Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila,
Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha,
Mudgala,
and Hamsa.[31]The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha.[32][33] The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi worshipers.[34]
There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.[35]
Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the Tamil literature Tevaram. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean Shulman.[36]Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means "family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and may at times remain oral.[37] These have been little researched, though they are documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.[38]Jain and Buddhist Puranas
Jain Puranas deal with Jain myths, history and legends and form a major part of early Kannada literature.[39] [40] The best known is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. The Buddhist scriptures have no mention of puranas. But the Tibetan and Nepalese Buddhist revere nine works as puranas which are styled as Navadharmas (nine dharmas). The so called “nine dharmas” are no canon of any sect, but a series of books which have been composed at different periods and belong to different persuasions. These nine works are: Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita, Gandavyuha, Samadhiraja, Lankavatara, Tathagataguhyaka, Saddharmapundarika, Lalitavistara, Suvarnaprabhasa and Dashabhumishvara. All these scriptures are also designated Vaipulyasutras. Among other works, Swayambhu Purana narrates the mythological history of Nepal and describes Buddhist pilgrimage sites inside the Kathmandu ValleyIndian epic poetry
Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called Kavya (or Kāvya; Sanskrit: IAST: kāvyá). The Ramayana and Mahabharata, originally composed in Sanskrit and translated thereafter into many other Indian languages, are some of the oldest surviving epic poems on earth and form part of "Itihāsa" ("History").Sanskrit Epics
Main article: Sanskrit literature
The ancient Sanskrit
epics,
the Ramayana
and Mahabharata,
also termed Itihāsa
("History") or Mahākāvya
("Great Compositions"), refer to epic poems that form a canon
of Hindu scripture. Indeed, the epic form
prevailed and verse remained until very recently the preferred form of Hindu literary
works. Hero-worship
was and is a central aspect of Indian culture,
and thus readily lent itself to a literary tradition
that abounded in epic poetry and literature. The Puranas,
a massive collection of verse-form histories
of India's many Hindu gods
and goddesses, followed in this tradition. Itihāsas and Purāṇas are mentioned in the Atharva Veda[2]
and referred to as the fifth Veda.[3]The language of these texts, termed "Epic Sanskrit", constitutes the earliest phase of Classical Sanskrit, following the latest stage of Vedic Sanskrit found in the Shrauta Sutras.
The famous poet and playwright Kālidāsa also wrote two epics: Raghuvamsha (The Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumarasambhava (The Birth of Kumar Kartikeya), though they were written in later Classical Sanskrit rather than Epic Sanskrit. Other Classical Sanskrit epics are the “Slaying of Śiśupāla” Śiśupālavadha of Māgha, “Arjuna and the Mountain Man” Kirātārjunīya of Bhāravi, the “Adventures of the Prince of Nishadha” Naiṣadhacarita of Śrīharṣa and "Bhaṭṭi's Poem" Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi.
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